羅瀚文,汪 暉,王林龍,譚 楊,陳廖斌
(武漢大學(xué)1.中南醫(yī)院骨科,2.基礎(chǔ)醫(yī)學(xué)院藥理學(xué)系,湖北 武漢 430071)
骨關(guān)節(jié)炎(osteoarthritis,OA)是中老年人最常見(jiàn)的一種慢性、進(jìn)行性關(guān)節(jié)疾病,以關(guān)節(jié)疼痛及功能障礙為主要表現(xiàn)且女性發(fā)病率高于男性。OA的病理改變主要為關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退行性改變、軟骨邊緣骨質(zhì)增生和骨贅形成,但其確切的病因和發(fā)病機(jī)制仍不清楚。目前OA治療藥物僅能緩解癥狀,尋找一種能改善或阻止OA病情進(jìn)展的治療方法依然是研究OA的重點(diǎn)。
研究表明,OA不僅與年齡和關(guān)節(jié)負(fù)重相關(guān)聯(lián),而且是一種涉及全身代謝紊亂的疾病,與多種代謝性疾?。ㄈ缣悄虿『透哐獕海┕泊妫?-2]。其中脂代謝紊亂、炎癥反應(yīng)和軟骨細(xì)胞過(guò)度凋亡在OA的病情發(fā)展過(guò)程中扮演著十分重要的角色。過(guò)氧化物酶體增殖物激活受體γ(peroxiso me proliferator activated receptorγ,PPARγ)是一種依賴配體激活的核轉(zhuǎn)錄因子,屬于核受體超家族成員之一。其中PPARγ的主要作用是調(diào)節(jié)脂代謝、抑制炎癥反應(yīng)和細(xì)胞凋亡。利用PPARγ基因敲除小鼠證實(shí),PPARγ是正常軟骨內(nèi)成骨和軟骨生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育所不可缺少的[3]。越來(lái)越多的證據(jù)顯示,PPARγ參與了OA的發(fā)生發(fā)展,且可能成為治療OA的新作用靶點(diǎn)[3-4]。為此,本文綜述了PPARγ在OA發(fā)生過(guò)程中調(diào)節(jié)脂代謝、抗炎和抗凋亡中的重要作用。
在人類和嚙齒動(dòng)物中,PPAR有α、β/δ和γ3種亞型,并在體內(nèi)組織的分布存在一定差異[5]。PPARα絕大多數(shù)分布在肝、心臟和肌肉,是調(diào)節(jié)脂肪酸代謝的重要因子;PPARβ/δ幾乎存在于所有組織中,與許多生理過(guò)程相關(guān);而PPARγ則主要在脂肪組織中表達(dá),參與調(diào)控脂肪細(xì)胞分化與糖脂代謝,抑制炎癥反應(yīng)和改善胰島素抵抗。PPARγ又分為PPARγ1和 PPARγ2,它 們來(lái) 源于相同的基因,但 啟動(dòng)子和轉(zhuǎn)錄后剪接方式不同,PPARγ2比PPARγ1在N端多30個(gè)氨基酸。PPARγ1廣泛表達(dá)于許多組織和細(xì)胞,而PPARγ2則主要表達(dá)在脂肪組織,兩者在功能上有高度相似性。
PPARγ配體可分為天然配體(生理性配體)和合成配體。天然配體主要是一些必需脂肪酸,來(lái)源于飲食和機(jī)體的代謝產(chǎn)物。其中15-脫氧前列腺素J2(15-deoxyprostaglandin J2,15d-PGJ2)是最先被發(fā)現(xiàn)和最有效的內(nèi)源性PPARγ激動(dòng)劑[6]。合成配體主要是胰島素增敏劑噻唑烷二酮類(thiazolidinedione,TZD)藥物,如曲格列酮、羅格列酮、吡格列酮和環(huán)格列酮等。其他的合成配體還有貝特類降脂藥和非甾體類抗炎藥物。PPARγ與配體結(jié)合后主要調(diào)控以下信號(hào)通路:① 直接調(diào)節(jié)PPARγ磷酸化狀態(tài),并參加調(diào)節(jié)磷脂酰肌醇3激酶的活性,增加胰島素敏感;② 與位于某些基因上游的PPAR反應(yīng)元件(peroxisome proliferator response elements,PPRE)相互作用,從而調(diào)控靶基因的表達(dá),參與脂代謝與細(xì)胞凋亡等;③在炎癥反應(yīng)中,競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性地抑制NF-κB、激活蛋白1(activator protein-1,AP-1)、Janus激酶-信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)子及轉(zhuǎn)錄激活子(Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription,JAK-STAT)等途徑,發(fā)揮其負(fù)向、間接的轉(zhuǎn)錄調(diào)控作用。
研究表明,脂代謝紊亂在OA病情發(fā)展過(guò)程中起了重要作用,而PPARγ可以糾正機(jī)體脂代謝紊亂[7]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),OA關(guān)節(jié)滑液存在氧化低密度脂蛋白(oxidized low density lipoprotein,ox-LDL),其可以降低OA的保護(hù)因子胰島素樣生長(zhǎng)因子1(insulin-like growth factor-1,IGF-1)[8]。動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)中,TZD能通過(guò)上調(diào)ox-LDL受體1的表達(dá),增加脂肪細(xì)胞對(duì)ox-LDL的攝取,從而降低血清ox-LDL濃度[9]。TZD還可上調(diào)IGF-1受體表達(dá),間接增加IGF-1的生理活性[10]。大量研究證實(shí),軟骨細(xì)胞的膽固醇流出系統(tǒng)受損、血瘦素水平升高和脂聯(lián)素水平下降在OA發(fā)病機(jī)制中起著重要作用,而PPARγ對(duì)上述3種因素均有重要的調(diào)節(jié)作用。
CD36是一種B類清道夫受體,能促進(jìn)脂質(zhì)在細(xì)胞內(nèi)聚集。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),PPARγ能增加CD36的表達(dá),但PPARγ激動(dòng)劑并不會(huì)促進(jìn)細(xì)胞內(nèi)脂質(zhì)蓄積。造成這樣矛盾的結(jié)果可能是由于PPARγ激動(dòng)劑能通過(guò)活化PPARγ,誘導(dǎo)肝X受體(liver X receptor,LXR)表達(dá),從而增加ATP結(jié)合盒轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)子A1(ATP-binding cassette transporter A1,ABCA1)表達(dá)并促進(jìn)膽固醇外流。這兩種途徑之間可能存在著某種平衡關(guān)系。LXR與PPARγ同屬于代謝性核受體,均能促進(jìn)巨噬細(xì)胞的膽固醇流出,且兩者與代謝綜合征都有密切聯(lián)系。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞表達(dá)LXR的水平明顯低于正常軟骨[11],其調(diào)節(jié)控制的ABCA1和載脂蛋白A1(apolipoprotein A1,Apo A1)表達(dá)水平也同樣下降[11-12]。使用LXR激動(dòng)劑TO-901317后,發(fā)現(xiàn)OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞LXR通過(guò)上調(diào)目標(biāo)基因ABCA1與Apo A1的表達(dá),激活膽固醇逆轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)過(guò)程。另外,OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞存在脂質(zhì)沉積,經(jīng)過(guò)TO-901317治療后脂質(zhì)沉積消失[11]。提示OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞的膽固醇流出系統(tǒng)存在功能障礙。PPARγ激動(dòng)劑可上調(diào)膽固醇流出系統(tǒng)信號(hào)通路LXR/ABCA1/G1,從而增加巨噬細(xì)胞內(nèi)膽固醇流出[13]。然而,PPARγ激動(dòng)劑是否能修復(fù)OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞的膽固醇流出系統(tǒng),仍需要進(jìn)一步的實(shí)驗(yàn)來(lái)證實(shí)。
瘦素是一種由肥胖基因編碼的肽類激素,可抑制胰島β細(xì)胞合成和分泌胰島素。肥胖與非負(fù)重關(guān)節(jié)OA之間的關(guān)系可能由瘦素介導(dǎo)。血漿中瘦素水平的高低與機(jī)體的脂肪量是緊密相關(guān)的,肥胖個(gè)體中瘦素水平升高。成骨細(xì)胞和軟骨細(xì)胞能夠合成和分泌瘦素,后者可作用于軟骨細(xì)胞上的瘦素受體。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),雖然較低濃度的瘦素可以刺激軟骨細(xì)胞增殖,但高濃度瘦素則會(huì)抑制軟骨細(xì)胞的增殖[14]。已有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,循環(huán)高瘦素水平是OA的危險(xiǎn)因素之一[15]。瘦素可促進(jìn)OA關(guān)節(jié)軟骨細(xì)胞表達(dá)白細(xì)胞介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β),從而起到促炎作用[16]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),OA患者成骨細(xì)胞合成和分泌瘦素的水平高于正常[17],且OA病情較重患者的瘦素水平和軟骨上瘦素受體數(shù)量都要高于病情較輕患者,提示細(xì)胞生成分泌瘦素的多少與OA的嚴(yán)重程度呈正相關(guān)。TZD類藥物能激活肥胖大鼠脂肪組織的PPARγ,降低瘦素水平[18]。PPARγ可能通過(guò)抑制瘦素信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑JAKSTAT而減少瘦素的合成[19]。研究已發(fā)現(xiàn),瘦素可刺激OA患者骨髓間充質(zhì)干細(xì)胞中PPARγ表達(dá)[20],這可能是機(jī)體的代償保護(hù)機(jī)制。上述研究提示,降低瘦素水平可能是PPARγ治療OA的途徑之一。
脂聯(lián)素是一種能改善動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化和胰島素抵抗的激素,已在OA患者的關(guān)節(jié)滑液和軟骨細(xì)胞中發(fā)現(xiàn)。脂聯(lián)素在OA的發(fā)病機(jī)制中起到了重要作用。早期OA患者血清脂聯(lián)素水平升高,而晚期OA患者則降低[21],提示病情早期脂聯(lián)素水平可能因其保護(hù)作用而代償性增加,病情晚期則失代償降低。研究報(bào)道,脂聯(lián)素能增加基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶組織抑制物2(matrix metalloproteinase tissue inhibitor-2,TI MP-2)和 減少基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶13(matrix metalloproteinase-13,MMP-13)的含量,從而起到改善軟骨退化的作用[22]。TZD類藥物能升高血漿脂聯(lián)素水平,其作用機(jī)制可能是通過(guò)上調(diào)脂肪細(xì)胞中脂聯(lián)素mRNA水平,從而增加其生成與分泌。研究也發(fā)現(xiàn),人脂聯(lián)素的基因啟動(dòng)子區(qū)存在PPRE。已有研究證實(shí),OA患者骨組織中PPARγ與脂聯(lián)素呈正相關(guān)[23]。另外,PPARγ激動(dòng)劑可以增加脂聯(lián)素受體Adipo R1和Adipo R2的表達(dá)[24]。提示,PPARγ可能通過(guò)上調(diào)關(guān)節(jié)滑液和軟骨細(xì)胞中脂聯(lián)素水平而達(dá)到治療OA作用,但這仍需要進(jìn)一步的實(shí)驗(yàn)來(lái)證實(shí)。
PPARγ參與了機(jī)體多種生理過(guò)程的調(diào)控,在炎癥反應(yīng)中具有重要的調(diào)控作用。傳統(tǒng)觀念認(rèn)為,OA是一種非炎癥性關(guān)節(jié)炎,但隨著技術(shù)的進(jìn)步,實(shí)驗(yàn)和臨床資料都顯示,OA患者關(guān)節(jié)中存在炎癥反應(yīng),而軟骨細(xì)胞和滑膜細(xì)胞是重要參與者。PPARγ激動(dòng)劑主要通過(guò)減少兩者分泌的炎癥因子,達(dá)到抑制炎癥的目的。
在OA發(fā)生發(fā)展的過(guò)程中,軟骨細(xì)胞主要經(jīng)炎癥因子IL-1β與腫瘤壞死因子α(tu mor necrosis factorα,TNF-α)刺激分泌誘導(dǎo)型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,i NOS)、環(huán)氧化酶2(cyclooxygenases,COX-2)和 MMP,從而導(dǎo)致蛋白聚糖和Ⅱ型膠原降解,造成軟骨損傷。Afif等[25]發(fā)現(xiàn),IL-1β,IL-17,TNF-α和前列腺素E2(prostaglandins E2,PGE2)能下調(diào)OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞中PPARγ1的表達(dá)。動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)也發(fā)現(xiàn),IL-1能抑制軟骨細(xì)胞中PPARγ的表達(dá)[26]。在軟骨細(xì)胞中,被炎癥因子抑制的PPARγ表達(dá)水平可能是OA病理機(jī)制的重要過(guò)程。許多實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果均表明,PPARγ激動(dòng)劑可以下調(diào)OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞炎癥反應(yīng)。用15d-PGJ2或曲格列酮治療OA患者后發(fā)現(xiàn),軟骨細(xì)胞中IL-1β誘導(dǎo)的NO和PGE2濃度下降,同時(shí)被抑制的還有i NOS和COX-2的表達(dá)[27-28]。PPARγ激動(dòng)劑也可直接降低 OA軟骨細(xì)胞中IL-1β和 MMP-13水平[29]。而IL-1β可降低內(nèi)源性IGF-1水平[30],所以PPARγ可能減弱IL-1β對(duì)IGF-1的抑制作用。由炎癥因子IL-17和TNFα誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生的NO也被PPARγ激動(dòng)劑所抑制。其作用機(jī)制可能是PPARγ降低了炎癥信號(hào)通路中NF-κB和 AP-1的活性[27-28]。
在OA的發(fā)病機(jī)制中,軟骨細(xì)胞特性的改變是致病的關(guān)鍵因素之一,而滑膜細(xì)胞在其中的影響不能忽視。已有研究證實(shí),滑膜炎存在于OA患者中,是造成OA病情慢性持續(xù)性加重的重要原因,由滑膜細(xì)胞分泌的炎癥因子伴隨著整個(gè)OA的病程[31]。15d-PGJ2和曲格列酮可以抑制關(guān)節(jié)炎患者滑膜細(xì)胞分泌的數(shù)種炎癥因子的表達(dá),如IL-1β,TNF-α,IL-6,IL-8和 MMP-3[32-33]。在兔滑膜細(xì)胞中,PPARγ激動(dòng)劑還可抑制由脂多糖誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生的i NOS,COX-2,IL-1β和TNF-α[34]。在最近的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),PPARγ激動(dòng)劑是通過(guò)抑制 NF-κB的激活,從而減少滑膜細(xì)胞分泌 MMP-13[35]。
隨著對(duì)OA病因?qū)W研究的不斷深入,軟骨細(xì)胞過(guò)度凋亡已被證實(shí)在OA的發(fā)生發(fā)展中占有重要地位。Hashimoto等[36]認(rèn)為,OA軟骨細(xì)胞過(guò)度凋亡主要通過(guò)NO途徑和Fas途徑。PPARγ激動(dòng)劑能通過(guò)抑制NO途徑和Fas途徑,從而抑制細(xì)胞凋亡。本研究還發(fā)現(xiàn),細(xì)胞外信號(hào)調(diào)節(jié)激酶-絲裂原活化蛋白激酶(extracellular signal regulated kinase-mitogen active protein kinase,ERK-MAPK)通路和TNF/TN-FR通路均參與調(diào)控了軟骨細(xì)胞凋亡[37-38]。盡管其具體機(jī)制仍不清楚,但OA中凋亡細(xì)胞比例升高是明確的,提示可以通過(guò)抑制軟骨細(xì)胞凋亡,減緩軟骨退變,達(dá)到治療OA的目的。Relic等[39]發(fā)現(xiàn),PPARγ激動(dòng)劑可抑制人軟骨細(xì)胞的凋亡,其機(jī)制可能是抑制ERK-MAPK信號(hào)通路。然而,有學(xué)者持相反觀點(diǎn),認(rèn)為PPARγ激動(dòng)劑通過(guò)抑制NF-κB激活p38 MAPK,從而促進(jìn)OA患者軟骨細(xì)胞和滑膜細(xì)胞的凋亡[40]。導(dǎo)致結(jié)論相悖的原因可能是PPARγ對(duì)軟骨細(xì)胞凋亡調(diào)控有雙重作用。
目前仍未發(fā)現(xiàn)能有效阻止OA病情進(jìn)展的治療方法,其主要原因可能是OA發(fā)病機(jī)制仍不明確。通過(guò)文獻(xiàn)復(fù)習(xí)可以看出,PPARγ與OA發(fā)生、發(fā)展的關(guān)系十分密切。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),宮內(nèi)起源的 OA 可 能 與IGF-1通路 受 損 有 關(guān)[41],但PPARγ在其中的作用仍不明確。對(duì)PPARγ的研究可以深入了解OA發(fā)病的分子機(jī)制,并探尋有效治療OA的方法。至今對(duì)PPARγ的研究提示其可以通過(guò)多種途徑達(dá)到治療OA的目的,這些途徑之間并非獨(dú)立,而是相互聯(lián)系并形成復(fù)雜的關(guān)系網(wǎng)。但是其中的具體聯(lián)系尚不清楚,還需要大量的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究不斷深化,并尋找其他潛在的治療途徑。同時(shí)還需要闡明PPARγ激動(dòng)劑調(diào)控靶基因表達(dá)機(jī)制,從而更明確地了解PPARγ作用的分子機(jī)制,使以PPARγ激動(dòng)劑為新型OA治療藥物的研究有新的突破。
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中國(guó)藥理學(xué)與毒理學(xué)雜志2013年5期