陳 升 劉 嬌 張 新 謝渭芬
隨著對(duì)腫瘤研究的不斷深入,研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)腫瘤細(xì)胞并非“孤軍奮戰(zhàn)”,它們可以招募周圍的間質(zhì)細(xì)胞形成一個(gè)新的整體,稱之為腫瘤微環(huán)境(TME)。腫瘤微環(huán)境是由腫瘤細(xì)胞、多種間質(zhì)細(xì)胞及其分泌的蛋白、細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)等組成。肝細(xì)胞癌(以下簡稱肝癌)是中國常見惡性腫瘤之一,研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)在肝癌的微環(huán)境中,趨化因子及其受體在促進(jìn)肝癌細(xì)胞增殖、招募免疫細(xì)胞進(jìn)入腫瘤微環(huán)境、重塑細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)及腫瘤細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)移等方面都發(fā)揮著重要的作用[1]。
趨化因子是一類小分子蛋白,根據(jù)蛋白序列中保守性半胱氨酸(C)的數(shù)目及前兩個(gè)半胱氨酸之間的距離可分為CXC亞家族、CC亞家族、C亞家族和CX3C亞家族[2]。趨化因子的受體屬于G蛋白偶聯(lián)受體家族,根據(jù)與不同配體的結(jié)合分為CC類受體(CCR)、CXC類受體(CXCR)、C受體(CR)和CX3C受體(CX3CR)。趨化因子通過與相應(yīng)受體結(jié)合來發(fā)揮其生物學(xué)功能,但趨化因子與受體結(jié)合存在冗余的現(xiàn)象,即一種趨化因子可以結(jié)合多種受體,而一種受體也可以結(jié)合多種趨化因子。當(dāng)趨化因子與相應(yīng)的受體結(jié)合后,G蛋白亞基Gα-1和Gβ-γ分離并激活磷脂酰肌醇激酶和鳥苷三磷酸酶Rho下游通路,最終導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞外的鈣離子內(nèi)流,觸發(fā)下游信號(hào)通路,引起多種生物學(xué)效應(yīng)。趨化因子根據(jù)其生物學(xué)功能又可分為維持穩(wěn)態(tài)的趨化因子和炎性反應(yīng)相關(guān)的趨化因子。維持穩(wěn)態(tài)的趨化因子在細(xì)胞的定植、次級(jí)淋巴器官的抗原遞呈和免疫監(jiān)視等生理情況下起著重要的作用。炎性反應(yīng)相關(guān)的趨化因子在組織炎性反應(yīng)情況下招募中性粒細(xì)胞、單核細(xì)胞、自然殺傷細(xì)胞進(jìn)入炎性組織,從而啟動(dòng)機(jī)體固有免疫反應(yīng)[3-4]。
在肝癌中,腫瘤細(xì)胞本身為趨化因子的重要來源之一,其通過分泌多種趨化因子來招募間質(zhì)細(xì)胞進(jìn)入腫瘤內(nèi),形成肝癌微環(huán)境。Zhou等[5]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),轉(zhuǎn)移能力較強(qiáng)的肝癌細(xì)胞(MHCC-97L、MHCC-97H、LM3)比轉(zhuǎn)移能力較弱的肝癌細(xì)胞(HepG2、PLC、Huh7)分泌更多的 CXCL5,并且在肝癌患者樣本中發(fā)現(xiàn),CXCL5主要表達(dá)于肝癌實(shí)質(zhì)細(xì)胞內(nèi),還證實(shí)了肝癌細(xì)胞中CXCL5表達(dá)的強(qiáng)弱與瘤內(nèi)中性粒細(xì)胞浸潤程度及預(yù)后相關(guān)。
除了腫瘤細(xì)胞外,與腫瘤相關(guān)的巨噬細(xì)胞、庫普弗細(xì)胞、樹突狀細(xì)胞、激活的星狀細(xì)胞及肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞等均可合成和分泌趨化因子(見表1)。Matsubara等[6]等報(bào)道了CX3CL1不僅表達(dá)于肝癌細(xì)胞,還表達(dá)于肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和膽管細(xì)胞。Piqueras等[7]和 Zimmermann等[8]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),通過CCR1和CCR5招募的CD14+CD16+單核細(xì)胞可以分泌CCL3、CCL4等多種細(xì)胞因子。Bai等[9]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),骨髓間質(zhì)來源的HS-5細(xì)胞通過分泌CCL5來激活肝癌細(xì)胞(Huh7)PI3K/AKT通路和上調(diào)基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶-2(MMP-2)的表達(dá),從而促進(jìn)肝癌細(xì)胞增殖、遷移和侵襲并抑制其凋亡。
表1 肝癌微環(huán)境中重要的趨化因子和受體
迄今為止,已發(fā)現(xiàn)多種趨化因子在促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖方面發(fā)揮著重要的作用。Cao等[25]檢測(cè)了48對(duì)肝癌與癌旁標(biāo)本中CXCL1的mRNA含量,發(fā)現(xiàn)Ⅰ~Ⅱ期患者中有51.4%的癌組織較癌旁組織表達(dá)升高,Ⅲ~Ⅳ期達(dá)72.7%;將肝癌細(xì)胞(7721、7402)過表達(dá)CXCL1或外源性加入CXCL1,均可明顯增強(qiáng)肝癌細(xì)胞的增殖能力。Du等[26]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),激活CCL20/CCR6趨化因子軸可以增強(qiáng)肝癌細(xì)胞的增殖能力,下調(diào)CCR6則可抑制肝癌細(xì)胞的增殖。Shi等[27]報(bào)道了下調(diào)肝癌細(xì)胞(97L、LM3)趨化因子CC受體樣蛋白1(CCRL1)的表達(dá)后,可以抑制肝癌細(xì)胞的增殖并減慢皮下成瘤小鼠的腫瘤生長速度;同時(shí)腫瘤細(xì)胞分泌的CCL19和CCL21也隨之減少,抑制了其共同受體CCR7的活性和下游Akt/GSK-3β和 Wnt通路的激活;這說明CCRL1表達(dá)上升可以抑制具有促瘤能力的CCR7的活性,從而減慢了腫瘤的增殖速度。Ochoa-Callejero等[28]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),CCR5拮抗劑maraviroc不僅可抑制CCL5/p38/ERK通路的激活,從而緩解乙硫氨酸誘導(dǎo)的小鼠肝癌細(xì)胞增殖,而且肝癌細(xì)胞的凋亡數(shù)量明顯增多。
趨化因子對(duì)肝癌細(xì)胞的轉(zhuǎn)移和侵襲同樣起著重要的作用。Liu等[29]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),CXCL12-CXCR4的激活可以促進(jìn)肝癌細(xì)胞的轉(zhuǎn)移。Nagamine等[30]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),巖藻多糖通過下調(diào)Huh7中CXCL12來達(dá)到抗腫瘤活性的作用。Uchida等[31]報(bào)道CCL20可以促進(jìn)CCR6高表達(dá)肝癌細(xì)胞(HepG2)形成偽足,肝癌組織中CCR6表達(dá)升高與癌細(xì)胞肝內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)移及預(yù)后較差相關(guān)。Tian等[32]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),缺氧誘導(dǎo)因子-1α(HIF-1α)可以結(jié)合在CXCL16轉(zhuǎn)錄活性區(qū),啟動(dòng)CXCL16的表達(dá),從而促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的轉(zhuǎn)移和侵襲,生存分析也顯示CXCL16表達(dá)高的患者預(yù)后較差。
趨化因子還可以誘導(dǎo)肝癌細(xì)胞分泌MMP,對(duì)細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)和基底膜進(jìn)行降解,增強(qiáng)腫瘤細(xì)胞的侵襲能力。Zhang等[33]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),骨橋蛋白可以刺激肝癌細(xì)胞(SMMC7721、HepG2)合成 CXCR4和MMP-2,從而增強(qiáng)肝癌細(xì)胞的侵襲能力。若下調(diào)CXCR4,則MMP-2表達(dá)下降,肝癌細(xì)胞的侵襲能力受到抑制。Shih等[34]報(bào)道了肝癌成血管細(xì)胞分泌的CCL2可以激活肝癌細(xì)胞的CCR2/JNK信號(hào)通路,使miR-21表達(dá)上調(diào),從而誘導(dǎo)肝癌細(xì)胞發(fā)生上皮-間質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)化(EMT)和MMP-9的釋放,最終使肝癌細(xì)胞侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移能力增強(qiáng)。
在轉(zhuǎn)移性肝癌的研究中,Itatani等[35]報(bào)道了在人肝轉(zhuǎn)移的結(jié)腸癌細(xì)胞中,Smad4的缺失可以上調(diào)CCL15表達(dá),CCL15可以招募能分泌 MMP-9的CCR1+髓細(xì)胞進(jìn)入肝癌組織,從而促進(jìn)了癌細(xì)胞在肝內(nèi)的轉(zhuǎn)移。Zhao等[36]在小鼠結(jié)腸癌肝轉(zhuǎn)移模型中發(fā)現(xiàn),腫瘤細(xì)胞分泌的CCL2可以結(jié)合到骨髓來源且具有促進(jìn)肝癌增殖的CD11b/Gr1mid細(xì)胞表面的CCR2受體,從而招募其進(jìn)入肝癌組織內(nèi),抑制CCL2分泌或沉默CD11b/Gr1mid細(xì)胞上的CCR2均可抑制腫瘤增殖,這說明CCL2-CCR2軸在招募這類特殊的細(xì)胞進(jìn)入肝癌組織內(nèi)起著重要的作用。然而對(duì)以上這些趨化因子及受體是否參與了肝癌器官特異性轉(zhuǎn)移尚無定論,因此在這方面進(jìn)一步研究將豐富肝癌器官特異性轉(zhuǎn)移的理論。
新生血管形成往往是腫瘤形成的標(biāo)志之一,新生血管為腫瘤的增殖、轉(zhuǎn)移和侵襲創(chuàng)造了有利條件。肝癌是一種血管豐富的腫瘤,它的增殖、轉(zhuǎn)移很大程度上依賴血供范圍,趨化因子和受體在其中發(fā)揮了重要的作用。在CXC趨化因子家族中,含有谷氨酸-亮氨酸-精氨酸模序(ELR)的趨化因子(如CXCL8、CXCL1、CXCL5和 CXCL12)是有效的成血管因子,而缺少ELR模序的CXC類趨化因子(如CXCL4、CXCL9等)可以抑制血管生成,兩類趨化因子的平衡關(guān)系決定了瘤內(nèi)血管的內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞增生程度,進(jìn)而影響腫瘤的生長和轉(zhuǎn)移[21,37]。
目前,許多研究圍繞CXCL12與血管生成的關(guān)系而展開。Li等[38]報(bào)道CXCL12和CXCR4在肝癌組織血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞中的表達(dá)均明顯上調(diào),表明肝癌可以通過自分泌方式促進(jìn)血管生成;Siegel等[39]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)用bevacizumab治療肝癌后,患者循環(huán)血液中血管內(nèi)皮生長因子-A(VEGF-A)和CXCL12下降。Xue 等[40]用 CXCL12 刺 激 肝 癌 細(xì) 胞SMMC-7721,發(fā)現(xiàn)VEGF分泌增加;若沉默CXCR7則VEGF分泌減少,且裸鼠皮下成瘤的瘤體明顯縮小,血管指標(biāo)CD31表達(dá)也減弱;結(jié)果間接證實(shí)了CXCR7可能是CXCL12受體之一,激活CXCR7會(huì)促進(jìn)血管生成。
小鼠肝癌模型研究發(fā)現(xiàn),通過尾靜脈注射胸腺瘤細(xì)胞后,CCR1基因敲除小鼠(CCR1-/-)肝轉(zhuǎn)移瘤的微血管密度明顯低于對(duì)照組[41]。Choi等[23]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),若下調(diào)肝癌細(xì)胞CXCL8的表達(dá),則VEGF分泌明顯減少,血管出芽能力減弱,小鼠瘤內(nèi)CD31、CD34、血管內(nèi)皮生長因子受體2(VEGFR2)及血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞鈣黏蛋白(E-cadherin)等血管標(biāo)志物表達(dá)下降。
肝臟的慢性炎性反應(yīng)常伴隨著持續(xù)的肝損傷,不斷的損傷和再生會(huì)導(dǎo)致肝臟纖維化、硬化,直至肝癌。趨化因子與炎性反應(yīng)的關(guān)系密切,明確趨化因子在慢性肝損傷到肝癌發(fā)展過程中的作用,以及尋找能預(yù)測(cè)慢性肝臟炎性反應(yīng)惡變的趨化因子作為診斷依據(jù),對(duì)肝癌的診治具有重要的意義。中性粒細(xì)胞作為腫瘤炎性微環(huán)境中典型的炎性細(xì)胞,可以分泌多種促炎介質(zhì),參與抗炎反應(yīng)及隨后的組織重建等過程。Gao等[42]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在肝癌組織標(biāo)本中的CXCR6表達(dá)明顯高于癌旁組織,CXCR6缺失會(huì)抑制Gr-1+中性粒細(xì)胞浸潤和促炎因子白細(xì)胞介素-1β(IL-1β)、IL-6和IL-8產(chǎn)生,聯(lián)合檢測(cè)肝癌標(biāo)本中CXCR6與中性粒細(xì)胞的表達(dá)可以提高對(duì)生存和預(yù)后判斷的準(zhǔn)確性。Kuang等[43]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),癌旁間質(zhì)中有促炎作用的IL-17+細(xì)胞數(shù)量較癌組織明顯增多,用IL-17處理過的肝細(xì)胞或肝癌細(xì)胞可以明顯提高中性粒細(xì)胞的遷移能力,并且IL-17可以刺激肝臟血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞CXCL1、CXCL5等數(shù)種CXC類趨化因子表達(dá)明顯上調(diào),但CC類趨化因子表達(dá)并未上調(diào)。如果抑制內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞表面的CXCR1和CXCR2,則中性粒細(xì)胞遷移能力明顯下降。以上結(jié)果說明IL-17可以通過血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞表達(dá)的CXC類趨化因子來促進(jìn)中性粒細(xì)胞進(jìn)入肝癌組織發(fā)揮抗炎作用。
目前有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),與肝癌相關(guān)的免疫細(xì)胞包括庫普弗細(xì)胞、自然殺傷細(xì)胞和樹突狀細(xì)胞,肝臟特有的肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞、肝星狀細(xì)胞和肝細(xì)胞都可以作為抗原遞呈細(xì)胞,這種特殊的微環(huán)境也影響了由趨化因子介導(dǎo)的免疫細(xì)胞的招募過程[44]。Tang等[45]用過表達(dá)CX3CL1的小鼠肝癌細(xì)胞對(duì)小鼠進(jìn)行皮下成瘤,發(fā)現(xiàn)CX3CL1可誘導(dǎo)機(jī)體產(chǎn)生腫瘤特異性的CD4+CD8+細(xì)胞毒性T細(xì)胞,其分泌IL-2可明顯減慢腫瘤的生長速度。有研究已證實(shí),CCL21可以招募樹突狀細(xì)胞和T細(xì)胞以減弱腫瘤細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的免疫抑制作用[46]。在此基礎(chǔ)上,Zhou等[47]在肝癌小鼠腹腔內(nèi)注射抗CD25鼠單克隆抗體(PC61)以去除小鼠體內(nèi)的Treg細(xì)胞,并聯(lián)合注射CCL21,發(fā)現(xiàn)腫瘤的血管生成和癌細(xì)胞增殖受到抑制,且瘤內(nèi)的CD4+CD8+細(xì)胞毒性 T細(xì)胞和CD11C+樹突狀細(xì)胞數(shù)量增加,具有免疫抑制功能的IL-10和轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子-β(TGF-β)釋放減少,最終小鼠的生存時(shí)間延長,說明去除小鼠體內(nèi)Treg細(xì)胞可以增強(qiáng)CCL21的抗腫瘤作用。Marukawa等[48]用過表達(dá)CCL2的肝癌細(xì)胞在小鼠體內(nèi)進(jìn)行皮下成瘤,發(fā)現(xiàn)瘤塊內(nèi)的 Mac-1+巨噬細(xì)胞、CD4+CD8+T淋巴細(xì)胞數(shù)量增加,腫瘤壞死因子-α(TNF-α)表達(dá)明顯升高,瘤體較對(duì)照組明顯縮小,說明CCL2可以招募并激活巨噬細(xì)胞和T淋巴細(xì)胞以達(dá)到抗腫瘤增殖的目的。
肝癌的預(yù)后不良且缺乏有效的治療手段,學(xué)者們致力于尋找新的治療靶點(diǎn)和治療手段。以往的研究表明了趨化因子及其受體在肝癌的發(fā)病機(jī)制中起著舉足輕重的作用。目前針對(duì)肝臟疾病的趨化因子拮抗劑已在動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)中初見成效,但令人遺憾的是,趨化因子對(duì)肝癌的發(fā)生發(fā)展既有抑制也有促進(jìn),基于肝癌趨化因子及其受體的拮抗劑研究目前尚處于起步階段。其中CXCL12-CXCR4軸的抑制劑研究得較多,特別是在防止腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移和復(fù)發(fā)方面的研究前景較為光明。肝癌趨化因子或受體的拮抗劑應(yīng)用于臨床需注意:(1)趨化因子拮抗劑可能會(huì)延遲人體正常炎性反應(yīng);(2)由于趨化因子及其受體存在冗余現(xiàn)象,抑制其中一對(duì)趨化因子及受體可能會(huì)反饋增強(qiáng)其他受體的活性;(3)明確合適的靶趨化因子軸進(jìn)行治療以及藥物劑量至關(guān)重要。相信隨著對(duì)趨化因子及其受體作用機(jī)制的研究和對(duì)肝癌發(fā)病機(jī)制和發(fā)展過程了解的不斷深入,必將為新藥的研發(fā)提供新的方向。
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