Zhen WANG, Yuan WANG, Qing ZHAO, Kaida JIANG*

?Forum?

Is the DSM-5 hoarding disorder diagnosis valid in China?

Zhen WANG, Yuan WANG, Qing ZHAO, Kaida JIANG*

hoarding disorder; DSM-5; cross-cultural validity; case report; China

Hoarding behavior has long been considered one of the symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder(OCD). However, recent research reporting significant differences among individuals with pathological hoarding, patients with OCD, and healthy controls in symptomatology, cognitive functioning, family history,and neuro-imaging[1,2]has prompted the American Psychiatric Association to make hoarding disorder a distinct condition in the recently published Fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).[3]Listed as one of the separate disorders under the new DSM-5 diagnostic group of‘Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders’, hoarding disorder has three core symptoms: (a) persistent difficulty discarding possessions regardless of value; (b)the accumulation of possessions congests one’s active living space; and (c) hoarding causes clinically significant distress or functional impairment.

Using these criteria, estimates of the prevalence of hoarding disorder in the general population range from 1.4% to 5.8%.[4,5]About 40% of patients who meet diagnostic criteria for OCD have hoarding symptoms(though in most cases it is the not the main OCD symptom), but 80% of individuals with pathological hoarding do not meet the diagnostic criteria of OCD.[6,7]In support of this decision to distinguish hoarding disorder from OCD, a meta-analysis[8]found that routine treatment for OCD among OCD patients with hoarding symptoms is significantly less effective than for OCD patients without hoarding symptoms.

However, there is still controversy about whether or not hoarding disorder should be considered an independent diagnosis, particularly in non-western cultures where the storing of possessions, including possessions of little current utility, is sanctioned and normalized. In these settings, direct application of the DSM-5 criteria could lead to over-diagnosis – the medicalization of a culturally acceptable behavior. Most of the research about hoarding has been conducted in high-income countries in Europe and North America,so research in non-western countries and in low- and middle-income countries is needed to assess the crossnational and cross-cultural validity of the new diagnostic criteria for hoarding disorder.

In Japan Matsunage and colleagues[9]reported that among 168 patients with OCD, 54 (32%) had hoarding symptoms; consistent with findings from outside of Asia,[10]they found that compared to OCD patients without hoarding those with hoarding had an earlier age of onset, more serious OCD symptoms, poorer insight,and a higher prevalence of other comorbid mental disorders. Chasson and colleagues[11]assessed the psychometric properties of the Mandarin version of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R) among Chinese OCD patients and found that the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and criteria validity were all satisfactory and similar to results from other cultural backgrounds.[12,13]In our own recent (as yet unpublished) work, we administered the Chinese version of the Saving Inventory-Revised (SI-R)[14]to 341 healthy volunteers and 140 individuals receiving treatment for a variety of mental disorders and found that hoarding was most common in individuals with OCD and, to a somewhat less extent, in individuals with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). Taken together, these findings suggest, but do not prove, that pathological hoarding is common in East Asia and that the clinical characteristics of the condition are similar to those reported in western countries.

There are, however, some differences between western and Asian results. Factor analysis of the results of a study by Tang and colleagues[15]that administered the Chinese SI-R scale to 2100 Chinese university students only identified two independent factors –‘a(chǎn)cquisition/difficulty discarding’ and ‘clutter’; this is different from the three factors identified in Western samples[13](‘a(chǎn)cquisition’, ‘difficulty discarding’, and‘clutter’). Tang and colleagues[15]posit that the reason for the difference may be that in Chinese culture‘a(chǎn)cquisition’ and ‘not discarding’ are active and passive aspects of the same traditional cultural concept of ‘to save is to earn’. Timpano and colleagues[16]compared hoarding behaviors using OCI-R and beliefs about hoarding using a novel hoarding beliefs questionnaire between 303 Chinese and 87 American undergraduates:they found that the mean (sd) overall hoarding score was significantly higher in Chinese students (25.3[10.7]) than in American students (15.6 [11.6]). They also reported that hoarding behaviors among Chinese students were mainly related to two beliefs (‘it could be useful one day’ [usefulness], and ‘nothing is supposed to be wasted’ [wastefulness]), while the American students had a wider range of hoarding behaviors and beliefs (including ‘stuff could bring visual joy’ [aesthetic qualities], ‘stuff can help to invoke specific memories’[remembrance], and ‘one has a responsibility to keep stuff in good condition’ [responsibility]). Our own(unpublished) work also found relatively high levels of self-reported hoarding behavior in healthy community volunteers. These results suggest that there may need to be some cultural adaptation when applying westernbased diagnostic criteria for hoarding disorder in Asian samples and that the cutoff scores for classifying pathological levels of hoarding when using translated versions of western scales of hoarding behavior may need to be revised.

‘Making the best use of everything’ and ‘a(chǎn)voiding waste’ are core values in Chinese culture that emerged in times of scarcity when preserving everything that may potentially be of use in the future was a reasonable strategy to enhance personal-security.[17,18]The very high saving rates of personal and family income in China show that these beliefs about personal and family security have persisted despite recent dramatic improvements in living standards. We conclude the‘Hoarding Disorder’ is relevant in China, but care needs to be taken to differentiate pathological hoarding that is distressing to the individual and significantly interferes with social and occupational functioning from culturally sanctioned thriftiness that is not associated with either distress or social dysfunction.

Funding

None.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declared no conflict of interest related to this manuscript.

1. Steketee G, Frost R, Kyrios M. Cognitive aspects of compulsive hoarding. Cogn Ther Res. 2003; 27(4): 463-479.doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025428631552

2. Mataix-Cols D, Frost RO, Pertusa A, Clark LA, Saxena S,Leckman JF, et al. Hoarding disorder: a new diagnosis for DSM-V? Depress Anxiety. 2010; 27(6): 556-572. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20693

3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington,VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013

4. Nordsletten AE, Reichenberg A, Hatch SL, Fernández de la Cruz L, Pertusa A, Hotopf M, et al. Epidemiology of hoarding disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2013; 203(6): 445-452. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.130195

5. Timpano KR, Exner C, Glaesmer H, Rief W, Keshaviah A,Brahler E, et al. The epidemiology of the proposed DSM-5 hoarding disorder: exploration of the acquisition specifier,associated features, and distress. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011; 72:780-786. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.10m06380

6. Van Ameringen M, Patterson B, Simpson W. DSM-5 obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: clinical implications of new criteria. Depress Anxiety. 2014; 31(6):487-493. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.22259

7. Mataix-Cols D, Frost RO, Pertusa A, Clark LA, Saxena S, Leckman JF, et al. Hoarding disorder: a new diagnosis for DSM-V? Depress Anxiety. 2010; 27(6): 556-572. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20693

8. Bloch MH, Bartley CA, Zipperer L, Jakubovski E, Landeros-Weisenberger A, Pittenger C, et al. Meta-analysis: hoarding symptoms associated with poor treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2014; 19(9):1025-1030. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.50

9. Matsunaga H, Hayashida K, Kiriike N, Nagata T, Stein DJ.Clinical features and treatment characteristics of compulsive hoarding in Japanese patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. CNS Spectr. 2010; 15(04): 258-266

10. Torres A R, Fontenelle L F, Ferr?o Y A, do Rosário MC, Torresan RC, Miguel EC, et al. Clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder with hoarding symptoms: a multicenter study. J Psychiatr Res. 2012; 46(6): 724-732. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.03.005

11. Chasson GS, Tang S, Gray B, Sun H, Wang J. Further validation of a Chinese version of the obsessive-compulsive inventoryrevised. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2013; 41(02): 249-254. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1352465812000379

12. Sica C, Ghisi M, Altoè G, Chiri LR, Franceschini S, Coradeschi D, et al. The Italian version of the Obsessive Compulsive Inventory: Its psychometric properties on community and clinical samples. J Anxiety Disord. 2009; 23(2): 204-211. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.07.001

13. Huppert J D, Walther M R, Hajcak G, Yadin E, Foa EB, Simpson HB, et al. The OCI-R: validation of the subscales in a clinical sample. J Anxiety Disord. 2007; 21(3): 394-406.doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.05.006

14. Frost RO. Measurement of compulsive hoarding: Saving Inventory-Revised. Behav Res Ther. 2004; 42(10):1163-1183

15. Tang T, Wang JP, Tang SQ, Zhao LN. [Psychometric properties of the Saving Inventory-Revised in Chinese University students sample]. Zhongguo Lin Chuang Xin Li Xue Za Zhi.2012; 20(1): 7. Chinese

16. Timpano KR, Cek D, Fu ZF, Tang T, Wang JP, Chasson GS.A consideration of hoarding disorder symptoms in China.Compr Psychiatry. 2015; 57: 36-47. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.11.006

17. Alcon J, Glazier K, Rodriguez C. From clutter to modern art:a Chinese artist’s perspective on hoarding behaviors. Am J Psychiatry. 2011; 168(12). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11091414

18. King AYC. The individual and group in Confucianism: a relational perspective. In: & Munro DJ, editor. Individualism and holism: Studies in Confucian and Taoist Values. Ann Arbor: Centre for Chinese Students, University of Michigan;1985. p. 57-70

(received, 2015-05-05; accepted, 2015-10-20)

Dr. Zhen WANG received his medical bachelor’s degree from Jining Medical School in 2000, his medical master’s degree from Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2003, and his PhD from Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2009. Since graduation he has worked as a psychiatrist in the Shanghai Mental Health Center where he is currently an associate professor and the director of the Research and Service Department. His main research interests are the etiology and treatment of obsessivecompulsive disorder and stress and trauma-related disorders.

DSM-5囤積障礙診斷在中國是否適用？

王振，王淵，趙青，江開達(dá)

囤積障礙; DSM-5; 跨文化有效性；病例報(bào)告；中國

Hoarding disorder, newly included as a separate diagnostic entity in the Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders section of DSM-5, has been reported to have significantly different symptoms and etiology than obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, the validity of this new diagnosis in China– where the storing of possessions is sanctioned and normalized – remains to be proven. We considered available data about pathological hoarding in East Asia and found the condition to be relatively common and symptomatically similar to that reported in western countries. We conclude that the ‘Hoarding Disorder’ diagnosis defined in DSM-5 is a valid clinical entity in China, though when making the diagnosis clinicians must take care to differentiate pathological hoarding that is distressing to the individual and significantly interferes with social and occupational functioning from culturally sanctioned thriftiness that is not associated with either distress or social dysfunction.

[Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2016; 28(2): 103-105.

http://dx.doi.org/10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.215054]

Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China

correspondence: Professor Kaida Jiang, Shanghai Mental Health Center, 600 Wan Ping Nan Road, Shanghai 200030, China. E-mail: jiangkaida@aliyun.com

A full-text Chinese translation of this article will be available at http://dx.doi.org/10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.215054 on August 25, 2016.

概述：囤積障礙 (hoarding disorder)，作為新近被納入DSM-5強(qiáng)迫癥和相關(guān)障礙部分的一個獨(dú)立疾病，與強(qiáng)迫癥 (obsessive-compulsive disorder, OCD) 相比具有明顯不同的癥狀和病因。然而，在中國，人們認(rèn)可儲藏個人財(cái)物并認(rèn)為這是正常的，這種新的診斷方法在中國的效度還有待證明。我們研究了東亞地區(qū)有關(guān)病理性囤積的可用數(shù)據(jù)，并發(fā)現(xiàn)囤積是比較常見的情況，而且出現(xiàn)的癥狀也類似于西方國家的報(bào)道。我們認(rèn)為，DSM-5 中定義的“囤積障礙”在中國是一種合理的臨床實(shí)體，雖然臨床醫(yī)生在作出該診斷時必須小心區(qū)分病理性囤積與文化上所認(rèn)可的節(jié)儉，前者令患者非常痛苦并且明顯妨礙其社會和職業(yè)功能，而后者與痛苦或社交障礙都不相關(guān)的。

本文全文中文版從2016年8月25日起在

http://dx.doi.org/10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.215054可供免費(fèi)閱覽下載