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      聞香識(shí)書(shū)

      2017-05-02 01:10ByKarlKruszelnicki
      英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí) 2017年4期
      關(guān)鍵詞:香草醛莎草化學(xué)藥品

      By+Karl+Kruszelnicki

      If youre into reading, youll probably have noticed how a brand new book has a rather special smell. Yes, its that new book smell—and its quite different from the smell of an older book. Whats going on?

      Books have been around for about 4,500 years. Some of the earliest books come from the fifth dynasty of Egypt, about 2,400 BC. They were written on papyrus1—similar to modern paper, but thicker.

      They made papyrus sheets by weaving together the stems of the papyrus plant into a sheet, and then smoothing out the bumps by pounding the woven sheet with some kind of mallet.2 But these were scrolls, a continuous roll of paper, rather than “the book” as we think of it today, which is a collection of individual sheets, stuck together along one edge so that the pages hinge3 on that side.

      The book, in its modern form, began to appear around the first century AD. These books had the advantages of being easier to read than a scroll, easier to find a specific page, and you could stack4 them more efficiently than you could with scrolls.

      In the early days, books were heavy and cumbersome5. Each book had to be made individually by hand—with every word on every page written by a scribe.

      So by 800 AD, a large library might hold only 500 books. Around 1045 AD, the Chinese inventor, Bi Sheng, came up with movable type made of earthenware—mud or clay, not metal.

      Unfortunately, neither his printing press nor any books made with it have yet been found.

      So the credit usually goes to Johannes Gutenberg for devising the printing press with movable type.6 He independently invented it around 1450 AD.

      Suddenly, books could be produced much more rapidly. Adding steam power meant that by 1800 AD, a printing press could deliver over 1,000 sheets per hour.

      So, where does the smell come from? Three sources—the paper, the ink and the glue.

      The Chinese first came up with paper like our modern paper around 200 AD. This invention slowly spread westward to Muslim countries, and then to Europe.

      Now theres a big difference between a lump of wood, and a sheet of paper. The wood has to be crushed, and then chemicals have to be used.

      Chemicals have to be added to make the wood fibres swell, to remove acid, to bleach the paper to the desired grade of whiteness, to confer some degree of water resistance, to add a sheen to the paper, and so on.7

      Thats part of the smell: each chemical comes with its own odour.

      And there are many different inks. Some inks fade with time, while others get darker.

      Theres a huge range of glues that can be used to bind the sheets together along one side to form a hinge. Different glues again would be used to attach the covers, whether hardcover or paperback.

      So you can see that there is an enormous range of different chemicals that can waft8 out of the freshly opened pages of your brand new book.

      Even within the books of one publishing house, there would be many different chemicals used, depending on the purpose of the book. A cheap black-and-white paperback would use quite different chemicals compared to an expensive coffee table book with glossy colour pages.9

      The whole situation gets more complicated again as the book degrades10. Not only will the inks and glues age and break down at their own rates, so too will the lignin and the cellulose in the paper.11

      These by-products include toluene (which gives a sweet odour), vanillin (which gives, of course, a vanilla odour), benzaldehyde (which smells like almonds) and 2-ethyl hexanol(slightly floral).12

      Indeed, some of the other breakdown products (such as furfural13) can be used to work out the age of the paper. So if you try to sell your freshly forged14 100 per cent genuine diary of the Buddha, make sure that you use paper that is older than a few years—or else your deception will be quickly detected.

      Today, the evolution of books has continued into the digital revolution, with eBooks. They might be convenient, but you cant give your copy to another person as a present, and they dont smell as nice.

      如果你愛(ài)讀書(shū),可能你曾注意到:一本嶄新的書(shū)會(huì)散發(fā)出一股奇特的氣味。沒(méi)錯(cuò),那就是新書(shū)的味道,與舊書(shū)的相去甚遠(yuǎn)。其中奧妙何在?

      書(shū)的歷史可追溯至大概4500年之前。公元前2400年左右,埃及第五王朝的一些書(shū)應(yīng)屬最早的書(shū)籍之一了。它們用的是莎草紙——與現(xiàn)代紙張相似,但較之更厚。

      埃及人把莎草的莖梗編織在一起,做成一大張莎草紙,然后用類(lèi)似于木槌的工具連續(xù)砸擊其凹凸不平的表面,使紙變得平滑。但那時(shí)用的紙都是卷軸,即長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)的一卷紙,而非我們所認(rèn)為的現(xiàn)代意義上的“書(shū)籍”——紙被裁成一張一張的,沿一側(cè)粘貼起來(lái),形成書(shū)脊。

      公元一世紀(jì)左右,現(xiàn)代書(shū)籍開(kāi)始出現(xiàn),這樣的書(shū)籍與卷軸相比更便于閱讀,更容易翻到某一頁(yè),也能更好地摞起來(lái)。

      早期書(shū)籍過(guò)于笨重,成書(shū)過(guò)程復(fù)雜繁瑣。每本書(shū)都是“手工”制作—— 古代抄寫(xiě)員一字一句謄寫(xiě)在書(shū)頁(yè)上。

      因此,公元800年時(shí),一家“大型”圖書(shū)館的藏書(shū)量可能僅有500本。公元1045年左右,中國(guó)的發(fā)明家畢發(fā)明了泥活字—— 使用泥土或黏土制版,而不是金屬。

      不幸的是,他的印刷機(jī)和用之印制的書(shū)籍尚未被發(fā)現(xiàn)。

      所以,人們常常將活字印刷機(jī)的發(fā)明歸功于約翰尼斯·古登堡——他在公元1450年左右獨(dú)立發(fā)明了活字印刷機(jī)。

      忽然之間,書(shū)籍得以更快速地生產(chǎn)出來(lái)。到了公元1800年,蒸汽動(dòng)力出現(xiàn)之后,一臺(tái)印刷機(jī)一小時(shí)就能印刷一千余張紙。

      那么,書(shū)的氣味究竟從何而來(lái)?源頭有三:紙、墨、膠。

      公元200年左右,中國(guó)首先造出了類(lèi)似現(xiàn)代紙張的紙。這項(xiàng)發(fā)明慢慢向西傳到伊斯蘭國(guó)家,然后再傳入歐洲。

      一塊木頭和一張紙看上去差異巨大。木材必須碾碎,然后使用各種化學(xué)藥品進(jìn)行處理。

      加入化學(xué)藥品,使木質(zhì)纖維膨脹,去除酸液,漂白紙張至想要的白度,使其具有一定的防水性,增添其光澤度,造紙需要進(jìn)行上述等一系列的處理工藝。

      每一種化學(xué)藥品都具有自己獨(dú)特的氣味,這就是書(shū)氣味的部分來(lái)源。

      印刷時(shí)還會(huì)使用許多不同種類(lèi)的油墨。隨著時(shí)間的推移,一些墨水慢慢褪色,另一些則越來(lái)越深。

      沿書(shū)頁(yè)一側(cè)粘貼書(shū)脊時(shí)可用的膠水也是五花八門(mén)。同樣,在粘貼封面時(shí)——無(wú)論是精裝還是平裝——也會(huì)用到不同的膠水。

      因此,當(dāng)你剛剛打開(kāi)一本嶄新的書(shū)時(shí),一大堆各種各樣的化學(xué)品的氣味撲鼻而來(lái)。

      即使是同一個(gè)出版社的書(shū),書(shū)的定位不同,所用的化學(xué)品亦會(huì)不同。單色的廉價(jià)平裝書(shū)所用的化學(xué)品必然與亮麗的彩色印刷的昂貴咖啡桌配書(shū)完全不同。

      隨著書(shū)籍的年頭越來(lái)越長(zhǎng),情況又愈加復(fù)雜起來(lái)。不光油墨和膠水會(huì)以各自的速度老化、分解,紙張中的木質(zhì)素和纖維素也同樣在降解。

      這一過(guò)程產(chǎn)生的副產(chǎn)品包括甲苯(散發(fā)甜甜的氣味)、香草醛(顯然,有香草的氣味)、苯甲醛(聞起來(lái)像杏仁)和2-乙基己醇(微帶花香)。

      事實(shí)上,其他一些分解產(chǎn)物(例如糠醛)可用于檢測(cè)紙張的年代。所以,如果你想成功地售出一本新鮮炮制的“百分百正宗”的佛陀日記,那么你必須確保用紙有一定的年頭——不然,騙局很快會(huì)被拆穿。

      如今,隨著電子書(shū)的誕生,書(shū)籍的進(jìn)化已經(jīng)進(jìn)入了數(shù)字革命時(shí)代。電子書(shū)倒是攜帶方便,可是你沒(méi)法將它們作為禮物贈(zèng)送他人,而且它們聞起來(lái)可沒(méi)有紙書(shū)這么好。

      1. papyrus:(古埃及人用的)莎草紙。

      2. stem: (植物的)莖,梗;bump:隆起之處;pound: 連續(xù)重?fù)?,猛打;mallet: 木槌。

      3. hinge: 給……裝鉸鏈。此處指用膠或線等方式把書(shū)頁(yè)黏合起來(lái)。

      4. stack: 整齊地堆起,摞起。

      5. cumbersome:(過(guò)程或系統(tǒng))耗時(shí)的,累贅的。

      6. credit: 功勞,贊譽(yù);Johannes Gutenberg:約翰內(nèi)斯·古登堡(1398—1468),是第一位發(fā)明活字印刷術(shù)的歐洲人,他的發(fā)明引發(fā)了一次媒介革命,并被廣泛認(rèn)為是現(xiàn)代史上最重要的事件之一。

      7. swell: 鼓起,隆起;bleach: 使變白,漂白;confer: 賦予,帶來(lái);sheen:(外表的)光澤,光彩。

      8. waft: (在空氣中)飄蕩。

      9. coffee table book: 咖啡桌圖書(shū),一般是供咖啡茶幾上擺設(shè)用的書(shū)或大型畫(huà)冊(cè);glossy: 光亮的,有光澤的。

      10. degrade: 降低……的質(zhì)量(或品格)。

      11. lignin: 木質(zhì)素;cellulose: 纖維素。

      12. toluene: 甲苯,一種無(wú)色、帶特殊芳香氣味的揮發(fā)液體;vanillin: 香草醛,又名香蘭素,一種白色至淡黃色針狀結(jié)晶的有機(jī)化合物,可從香草種莢中提??;benzaldehyde:苯甲醛,有機(jī)化合物,在室溫下是無(wú)色液體,具有特殊的杏仁氣味;2-ethyl hexanol: 2-乙基己醇,無(wú)色有特殊氣味液體,可燃;floral: 像花的。

      13. furfural: 糠醛,一種工業(yè)用化學(xué)制品,一種芳香族的醛。

      14. forge: 偽造。

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