崔艷智，高陽，2*，趙桂慎

(1.中國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)資源與環(huán)境學(xué)院,北京 100193；2.國(guó)土資源部農(nóng)用地質(zhì)量與監(jiān)控重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100193）

農(nóng)田面源污染差別化生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究進(jìn)展

崔艷智1，高陽1，2*，趙桂慎1

(1.中國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)資源與環(huán)境學(xué)院,北京 100193；2.國(guó)土資源部農(nóng)用地質(zhì)量與監(jiān)控重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100193）

為了更好地促進(jìn)農(nóng)業(yè)面源污染的防治,歸納分析了農(nóng)田面源污染及生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)膮^(qū)域性和個(gè)體性差異,提出農(nóng)田面源污染差別化的補(bǔ)償需要以面源污染形成、土地利用、生態(tài)資源稟賦、社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展等區(qū)域性差異和公眾意識(shí)覺悟及農(nóng)戶種植經(jīng)營(yíng)等個(gè)體差異為核心,實(shí)施差別化的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償方案,并針對(duì)當(dāng)前我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償存在的問題提出了相應(yīng)的差別化補(bǔ)償建議。

農(nóng)田面源污染；生態(tài)補(bǔ)償；個(gè)體差異性；區(qū)域差異性

隨著人們需求的不斷增加和農(nóng)業(yè)集約化程度的提高,農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)環(huán)境、自然資源和人類可持續(xù)發(fā)展之間的矛盾日益突出。農(nóng)藥、化肥的大量使用及農(nóng)業(yè)廢棄物的不合理處置造成的農(nóng)田面源污染,已成為制約我國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)和農(nóng)村可持續(xù)發(fā)展的重要因素。農(nóng)田面源污染是指農(nóng)田盈余氮磷養(yǎng)分、農(nóng)藥等有機(jī)或無機(jī)污染物從地塊或區(qū)域等非特定地域,通過雨水沖刷、地表徑流、土壤滲濾進(jìn)入受納水體造成的污染［1］,是流域水體污染的主要原因［2］。自改革開放以來,我國(guó)化肥的施用量從1978年884萬t增加到2014年5 995.9萬t,增長(zhǎng)了5.78倍,平均每公頃化肥施用量達(dá)912.3 kg［3］,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過國(guó)際上設(shè)置的225 kg·hm-2化肥使用安全上限。同時(shí),我國(guó)還是一個(gè)農(nóng)藥使用大國(guó),2014年農(nóng)藥的施用量達(dá)180.7萬t,而實(shí)際利用率卻僅在30%左右［4］。此外,大量的畜禽糞便等廢棄物未經(jīng)處理直接施用或隨意堆放［5］,也對(duì)生態(tài)環(huán)境造成了嚴(yán)重危害。

與點(diǎn)源污染相比,農(nóng)田面源污染具有隨機(jī)性、分散性和監(jiān)測(cè)成本高的特點(diǎn)［6］,這些特點(diǎn)也決定了排污收費(fèi)方式并不適用于農(nóng)田面源污染。設(shè)計(jì)和制定農(nóng)田面源污染的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制,有利于農(nóng)田面源污染的削減和防治,可以有效地促進(jìn)農(nóng)田環(huán)境治理與保護(hù)［7］。一般認(rèn)為,生態(tài)補(bǔ)償是經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展過程中的一種經(jīng)濟(jì)手段,目的是為了改善污染地區(qū)的生態(tài)環(huán)境質(zhì)量［8］,通過對(duì)損害(或保護(hù)）資源環(huán)境的行為進(jìn)行收費(fèi)(或補(bǔ)償）,提高該行為的成本(或收益）,從而激勵(lì)損害(或保護(hù)）行為的主體減少或消除因其行為帶來的外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)性(或增加外部經(jīng)濟(jì)性）,達(dá)到保護(hù)資源和環(huán)境的目的［9］。較之點(diǎn)源污染,農(nóng)田面源污染難以溯源、不易管控。相比流域和森林面源污染,我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償工作存在研究起步晚、重視不足、機(jī)制機(jī)理不明等問題,農(nóng)田面源污染若不能盡早防治會(huì)成為阻礙社會(huì)可持續(xù)發(fā)展的巨大“毒瘤”。因此,本研究通過梳理和比較國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)牟顒e化實(shí)踐,針對(duì)農(nóng)田面源污染的區(qū)域和個(gè)體性差異,提出差別化的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償政策方案,為今后的面源污染防治提供建議。

1 國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究實(shí)踐

生態(tài)補(bǔ)償也可稱為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)付費(fèi)(Payment for Ecosystem Services,PES）,是通過經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)解決環(huán)境污染的有效手段。農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償在合法利用農(nóng)業(yè)資源過程中,對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)資源所有者或?qū)ι鷳B(tài)保護(hù)者支付費(fèi)用［10］,旨在通過經(jīng)濟(jì)、政策、市場(chǎng)等手段,解決發(fā)展中存在的非均衡問題,最終實(shí)現(xiàn)區(qū)域間可持續(xù)發(fā)展［11］。20世紀(jì)70年代,歐美國(guó)家最先推行農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償政策, Griffin和Bromley最早對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)面源污染的防治進(jìn)行了研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)農(nóng)戶不愿自主減少造成農(nóng)業(yè)面源污染的行為［12］。管理者多采用命令控制和經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)這兩種手段來對(duì)污染進(jìn)行控制［13］。盡管命令控制手段簡(jiǎn)便且應(yīng)用較多［14］,但由于農(nóng)田面源污染不確定性高,且命令型手段具有局限性,其實(shí)施效果并不理想；反之,經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)型方式可以起到引導(dǎo)利益相關(guān)者主動(dòng)減少破壞行為或增加保護(hù)行為的作用,鼓勵(lì)人們自愿地參與環(huán)境保護(hù)活動(dòng)。Segerson主張?jiān)O(shè)計(jì)排污收費(fèi)制度,對(duì)污染物超標(biāo)排放的地區(qū)處以懲罰,并對(duì)減少污染排放的地區(qū)給予獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)［13］。Tomasi和Shortle等提出,可以利用補(bǔ)貼、稅收等經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)機(jī)制來減少有害的農(nóng)田生產(chǎn)性投入,從而減少面源污染物的濃度［15-16］。Horan等則研究了一種基于農(nóng)場(chǎng)污染物濃度比賽排序的方法,對(duì)排名最后和排名靠前的農(nóng)場(chǎng)分別給予懲罰和獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)［17］。自此,通過補(bǔ)貼等經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)型手段防控農(nóng)田面源污染的方法開始展現(xiàn)鋒芒。

我國(guó)對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)面源污染的治理始于20世紀(jì)80年代［18］,隨后生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)南嚓P(guān)政策及法律法規(guī)陸續(xù)出臺(tái),大致可分為三個(gè)階段.20世紀(jì)90年代之前,生態(tài)補(bǔ)償主要是征收稅費(fèi),且大多針對(duì)采礦業(yè)；90年代后期,生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究逐漸從理論轉(zhuǎn)向?qū)嵺`,重點(diǎn)為環(huán)境保護(hù)建設(shè)者財(cái)政轉(zhuǎn)移的補(bǔ)償機(jī)制［19］；進(jìn)入21世紀(jì),生態(tài)補(bǔ)償工程涉及的范圍更加全面、理論更加成熟、政府的投入也不斷加大,補(bǔ)償?shù)膶?shí)踐工作快速發(fā)展［20］。從近年來農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償方面的文獻(xiàn)(圖1）可見,農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)难芯渴艿街匾?用生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)氖侄蝸矸乐无r(nóng)業(yè)面源污染已成為當(dāng)今社會(huì)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。與國(guó)外相比,我國(guó)補(bǔ)償實(shí)踐方面主要以政府為主導(dǎo),同時(shí)還有部分市場(chǎng)交易及非政府組織(NGO）參與模式［21］,力圖在擴(kuò)展補(bǔ)償資金來源、征收環(huán)境資源稅、明確補(bǔ)償方式和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)等基礎(chǔ)上,建立符合國(guó)情的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償法律保障機(jī)制［22］。盡管農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償工作已開展并取得初步成效,與森林生態(tài)補(bǔ)償、流域生態(tài)補(bǔ)償相比,我國(guó)的農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償起步晚,側(cè)重于理論研究,實(shí)踐研究尚不成熟［23］,在減少農(nóng)藥化肥施用量、合理處置畜禽糞便及生活垃圾等方面沒有明確規(guī)定,也沒有完善的補(bǔ)償政策及體系。但可喜的是,農(nóng)田面源污染問題已引起國(guó)家重視,面源污染防治條件下的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究也會(huì)成為未來國(guó)家環(huán)境與可持續(xù)發(fā)展的研究重點(diǎn)。

圖1 我國(guó)農(nóng)田、森林、流域生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究數(shù)量對(duì)比Figure 1 Comparison of the number of ecological compensation in farmland,forest and watershed in China

2 農(nóng)田面源污染差別化生態(tài)補(bǔ)償理論基礎(chǔ)

生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制的要素包括補(bǔ)償主客體、補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和補(bǔ)償方式等,作為一種經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)手段,其核心問題是“誰補(bǔ)誰,補(bǔ)多少,怎樣補(bǔ)”［24］。農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償應(yīng)以鼓勵(lì)支持為主,目的是增加農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)等行為的正外部性效應(yīng),減少負(fù)外部性［25］,其補(bǔ)償主體主要是作為公眾代表的政府,客體則主要是實(shí)施農(nóng)田面源污染防控措施以減少污染物排放的不同規(guī)模經(jīng)營(yíng)主體。在農(nóng)田面源污染的防治過程中,不同規(guī)模經(jīng)營(yíng)者為了保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境,減少污染物的排放(如減少施用化肥、農(nóng)藥）,在短期內(nèi)可能造成農(nóng)戶的糧食收益降低、喪失部分機(jī)會(huì)成本等。同時(shí),社會(huì)公眾也會(huì)因面源污染的減少享受到更好的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)及產(chǎn)品。

然而,由于農(nóng)田面源污染種類復(fù)雜、相關(guān)利益群體多,其生態(tài)補(bǔ)償在補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、補(bǔ)償類型、補(bǔ)償機(jī)制等方面均有差異［26］。從補(bǔ)償推動(dòng)方面來看,生態(tài)補(bǔ)償最開始由政府主導(dǎo),以項(xiàng)目形式來實(shí)施,主要表現(xiàn)為上級(jí)政府的財(cái)政轉(zhuǎn)移支付以及同級(jí)政府間的橫向轉(zhuǎn)移支付［27］；隨后為了緩解財(cái)政壓力,發(fā)展形成了生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)氖袌?chǎng)交易［28］。從補(bǔ)償方式來看,目前生態(tài)補(bǔ)償方式主要有現(xiàn)金補(bǔ)償、技術(shù)補(bǔ)償、實(shí)物補(bǔ)償與政策補(bǔ)償［29］；從補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的確定來看,計(jì)算補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的方法有機(jī)會(huì)成本法、生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)價(jià)值功能法、微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)模型法等［24,30］,在此基礎(chǔ)上還應(yīng)對(duì)公眾的補(bǔ)償與受償意愿進(jìn)行調(diào)研［31］。由于使用不同方法計(jì)算所得的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)存在很大差別,而且個(gè)體之間具有選擇意愿、實(shí)踐能力、信念等差異,同一區(qū)域使用不同方法得到的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不同,不同區(qū)域使用同一方法得到的結(jié)果也不一樣。補(bǔ)償范圍的公平性和補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的合理性是保證生態(tài)補(bǔ)償順利實(shí)施的前提,若所有地區(qū)的農(nóng)戶補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)均一致,必然會(huì)導(dǎo)致部分農(nóng)戶因補(bǔ)償不足而放棄保護(hù)性行為,而補(bǔ)償過多則會(huì)加重財(cái)政負(fù)擔(dān),還可能加劇區(qū)域間的不平衡性。正是由于區(qū)域與個(gè)體間均存在差異以及生態(tài)補(bǔ)償本身的復(fù)雜性,使得農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制難以在短時(shí)間內(nèi)完善確立,補(bǔ)償措施實(shí)施困難,補(bǔ)償效果也不盡人意。因此在進(jìn)行農(nóng)田面源污染防治條件下的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償時(shí),必須充分考慮地域性和個(gè)體性差異,合理制定差別化的補(bǔ)償機(jī)制。

3 國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)田面源污染差別化生態(tài)補(bǔ)償

3.1 區(qū)域性差異補(bǔ)償

由于經(jīng)濟(jì)水平、土地利用和資源稟賦等方面存在地域性差異,同一國(guó)家不同地區(qū)造成農(nóng)田面源污染的主要原因、污染程度、污染防治措施等都存在不同(表1）。如根據(jù)《國(guó)務(wù)院關(guān)于完善退耕還林政策的通知》(國(guó)發(fā)〔2007〕25號(hào)）,對(duì)退耕農(nóng)戶的直接補(bǔ)助標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為.長(zhǎng)江流域及南方地區(qū)每公頃退耕地每年補(bǔ)助現(xiàn)金1575元；黃河流域及北方地區(qū)每公頃退耕地每年補(bǔ)助現(xiàn)金1050元。生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)膹?fù)雜性與地域性差異密不可分,補(bǔ)償措施的制定需要充分考慮到補(bǔ)償?shù)睦嫦嚓P(guān)方、補(bǔ)償方式、補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)確定方法、補(bǔ)償形式及補(bǔ)償?shù)膶?shí)施效果等,在生態(tài)補(bǔ)償措施的制定過程中,要充分考慮以下四種影響區(qū)域性補(bǔ)償差異的因素。

3.1.1 面源污染類型的區(qū)域性差異

形成面源污染的污染物具有地域性差異,由污染物的性質(zhì)、污染負(fù)荷量、地形地貌、氣候、植被覆蓋、土地利用方式等共同決定。目前我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染情況不容樂觀,污染種類多、分布廣,各種污染類型在不同地區(qū)差異較大。在西北干旱地區(qū),由于農(nóng)膜的大量使用,農(nóng)膜污染、白色污染問題突出；在中東部地區(qū),尤其是我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染較為嚴(yán)重的華北平原,種植作物以小麥、玉米為主,不合理施用的農(nóng)藥、化肥,再加上特殊的生活氣候條件,農(nóng)藥化肥面源污染問題相對(duì)突出；長(zhǎng)江三角洲地區(qū)種植作物以水稻為主,除化肥農(nóng)藥施用導(dǎo)致的面源污染外,由污水灌溉等引起的重金屬污染則不可忽視。不同區(qū)域的施肥種類、方式、施用時(shí)間等農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)性活動(dòng)各不相同；由于區(qū)域水資源的不同,養(yǎng)分流失還會(huì)受到水旱耕作方式的顯著影響［39-40］。這些都使面源污染的形成具有差異性和復(fù)雜性。美國(guó)的“最佳管理實(shí)踐”(Best Management Practices,BMPs）措施根據(jù)各區(qū)域農(nóng)田面源污染形成的原因及污染物種類的不同將治理污染的技術(shù)補(bǔ)償手段分為耕作管理、養(yǎng)分管理、農(nóng)藥管理、灌溉水管理和畜禽養(yǎng)殖管理［32］,也說明面源污染類型的區(qū)域性差異會(huì)進(jìn)一步影響防治農(nóng)田面源污染的補(bǔ)償手段。

3.1.2 土地利用的區(qū)域性差異

不同的土地利用方式因養(yǎng)分循環(huán)機(jī)制不同而影響水土保持及土壤物質(zhì)流失等情況。在不同的土地利用方式下,農(nóng)田面源污染的差異性與土壤侵蝕、氮磷流失、地形、土地坡度等都有密切關(guān)聯(lián)。孟慶華等研究發(fā)現(xiàn),不同土地利用方式的養(yǎng)分輸出總量有很大不同,變化趨勢(shì)為坡地＞梯田,徑流量養(yǎng)分輸出占系統(tǒng)養(yǎng)分總輸出的比例明顯不同,對(duì)N、P、K徑流輸出量影響顯著［41］。黃麗等對(duì)三峽庫區(qū)調(diào)查后發(fā)現(xiàn)土壤養(yǎng)分流失與土地利用相關(guān),表現(xiàn)為免耕區(qū)＞農(nóng)區(qū)、梯地＞坡耕地［42］。于嵐嵐等發(fā)現(xiàn),在降水量、流域坡度、農(nóng)業(yè)耕作措施條件相同的情況下,不同的土地利用方式對(duì)農(nóng)田面源污染影響負(fù)荷排序?yàn)楹档兀舅铮靖兀?3］。章明奎等通過田間調(diào)查農(nóng)田磷污染實(shí)驗(yàn)發(fā)現(xiàn),不同農(nóng)田利用方式影響農(nóng)田中TP的流失量,表現(xiàn)為桑園地＞蔬菜地＞稻田、小麥田、油菜田＞休閑地［44］。此外,作物的空間布局及破碎程度［45］、不同的種植模式［46］、多樣化的輪作模式［47］等都會(huì)造成差別化的農(nóng)田面源污染,均應(yīng)根據(jù)實(shí)際情況制定不同層次的補(bǔ)償措施和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。3.1.3生態(tài)資源稟賦的區(qū)域性差異

表1 國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)的地域性差異補(bǔ)償Table 1 Regional compensation of agricultural ecology at home and abroad

區(qū)域生態(tài)資源稟賦及其地域性分布差異對(duì)生態(tài)補(bǔ)償具有直接的導(dǎo)向作用［26］。生態(tài)資源稟賦是指以生態(tài)系統(tǒng)為中心的天賦資源,包括土壤理化性質(zhì)、降雨、土壤質(zhì)量、水資源、耕地資源等,不僅影響農(nóng)田面源污染程度,還會(huì)進(jìn)一步影響區(qū)域經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和資源利用效率,從而影響生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制的建立與發(fā)展。楊麗霞等認(rèn)為土壤中營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)的流失與土壤理化性質(zhì)密切相關(guān),一般來說土壤有機(jī)質(zhì)含量越高,土壤結(jié)構(gòu)越強(qiáng),營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)越不易流失［48］；Weier發(fā)現(xiàn)土地的植被覆蓋率會(huì)影響土壤中元素的流失量,植被莖葉對(duì)降雨的截留作用、植被根系對(duì)土壤的固結(jié)作用和植被對(duì)徑流傳遞的阻礙作用可有效地減少土壤侵蝕和氮磷等元素的流失［49］。還有研究表明降雨(包括降雨量和強(qiáng)度）是影響氮磷等流失的重要?dú)庀笠蜃?當(dāng)降雨強(qiáng)度大于土壤下滲速度時(shí),就會(huì)產(chǎn)生地表徑流,引起農(nóng)田中氮磷等營(yíng)養(yǎng)元素的流失,在強(qiáng)降雨條件下,土壤侵蝕量和氮磷流失量都明顯大于弱降雨條件［50］。我國(guó)地域遼闊,區(qū)域資源稟賦空間差異大,在治理農(nóng)田面源污染進(jìn)行生態(tài)補(bǔ)償時(shí)應(yīng)充分考慮生態(tài)資源稟賦的差異,尤其對(duì)生態(tài)敏感區(qū),要科學(xué)合理地制定敏感性評(píng)價(jià)指標(biāo),并將其對(duì)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)價(jià)值的影響考慮在內(nèi)［51］。

3.1.4 社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的區(qū)域性差異

經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平會(huì)影響不同區(qū)域在生態(tài)補(bǔ)償方面的空間差異,在生態(tài)補(bǔ)償框架中具有重要作用。生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)闹Ц赌芰τ绕涫钦?cái)政轉(zhuǎn)移支付能力的高低取決于區(qū)域的社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平。具有較高經(jīng)濟(jì)水平地區(qū)的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)往往高于經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展較為落后的區(qū)域,表現(xiàn)為“富區(qū)補(bǔ)償多、窮區(qū)補(bǔ)償少”。且經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)和經(jīng)濟(jì)落后地區(qū)在生態(tài)補(bǔ)償能力、補(bǔ)償方式、補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)核算方式、環(huán)境意識(shí)等方面的不同也會(huì)導(dǎo)致生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)牟町悾?2］。美國(guó)土地休耕計(jì)劃(Conservation Reserve Program,CRP）中土地支付補(bǔ)貼平均為116.83美元·hm-2(2005年）,由于各州經(jīng)濟(jì)水平、土地租金和土地質(zhì)量的不同,各州的平均補(bǔ)貼也很不一致,最高的馬里蘭州平均補(bǔ)貼高達(dá)302.6美元·hm-2,最低的懷俄明州僅為68.8美元·hm-2［34］。我國(guó)退耕還林工程(以生態(tài)公益林補(bǔ)償為例）,西北地區(qū)(除寧夏回族自治區(qū)）對(duì)退耕農(nóng)戶的補(bǔ)貼標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為67.5元·hm-2,而北京、廣東、浙江等經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)分別為315、195、225元·hm-2［38］。稻改旱工程中,河北省承德縣農(nóng)戶的補(bǔ)貼標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為每年6750元·hm-2,而北京地區(qū)農(nóng)戶則按每年8250元·hm-2的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)給予補(bǔ)償［53］。由此可見,區(qū)域經(jīng)濟(jì)水平也切實(shí)影響到生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)膶?shí)施。

3.2 個(gè)體性差異補(bǔ)償

在同一地區(qū),由于農(nóng)戶自主耕作,不同農(nóng)戶之間存在土地面積、種植作物、施肥等差異。在農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償實(shí)施過程中,農(nóng)戶作為“理性經(jīng)濟(jì)人”,具有利己特點(diǎn),他們?cè)趨⑴c環(huán)境保護(hù)項(xiàng)目時(shí)所表現(xiàn)出的積極或是消極態(tài)度對(duì)補(bǔ)償措施的實(shí)施效果具有重大影響。Hounsome等從農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境保護(hù)項(xiàng)目參與度入手,發(fā)現(xiàn)農(nóng)民的心理健康程度與項(xiàng)目的參與度呈正相關(guān)［54］。Defrancesco等發(fā)現(xiàn)家庭收入、個(gè)體思想、觀念信仰等因素直接影響農(nóng)戶參與生態(tài)農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境項(xiàng)目的積極性［55］。流動(dòng)性和償付能力也是影響美國(guó)農(nóng)戶參與農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境項(xiàng)目的主要因素［56］。Home等對(duì)農(nóng)戶個(gè)體進(jìn)行研究發(fā)現(xiàn),瑞士地區(qū)農(nóng)戶對(duì)耕地保護(hù)及其服務(wù)付費(fèi)項(xiàng)目的滿意度受到地域和政策的直接影響［57］。因此,若是只根據(jù)土地面積進(jìn)行補(bǔ)償,則可能導(dǎo)致部分農(nóng)戶的農(nóng)業(yè)收入減少,農(nóng)民不愿持續(xù)實(shí)施環(huán)境保護(hù)性行為,便很難達(dá)到保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境、實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)發(fā)展的最終目的。

在農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償實(shí)施過程中,個(gè)體性差異主要體現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)方面.一是公眾意識(shí)與覺悟的個(gè)體差異,二是農(nóng)戶種植經(jīng)營(yíng)的個(gè)體差異。公眾對(duì)于生態(tài)環(huán)境保護(hù)的覺悟主要體現(xiàn)為他們對(duì)生態(tài)資源及其價(jià)值的認(rèn)知和實(shí)施保護(hù)性行為的態(tài)度,與家庭成員的受教育程度、收入來源、具備的專業(yè)技能、家庭勞動(dòng)力情況等相關(guān)。謝晉等對(duì)成都和蘇州兩地農(nóng)戶進(jìn)行調(diào)查,發(fā)現(xiàn)農(nóng)戶對(duì)農(nóng)田保護(hù)補(bǔ)償政策實(shí)施成效的感知評(píng)價(jià)具有顯著的區(qū)域及個(gè)體差異［58］,農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)戶、非農(nóng)經(jīng)營(yíng)戶和兼業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)戶對(duì)環(huán)保政策的參與度與實(shí)施效果滿意度也有很大不同［58］。農(nóng)戶的家庭農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)差異取決于家庭承包經(jīng)營(yíng)面積、農(nóng)業(yè)種植情況、耕地質(zhì)量、化肥農(nóng)藥的自主選擇以及種植經(jīng)營(yíng)主體(小農(nóng)戶、家庭農(nóng)場(chǎng)、合作社或企業(yè)）等。在國(guó)外,歐盟的共同農(nóng)業(yè)政策主張轉(zhuǎn)變經(jīng)營(yíng)方式與結(jié)構(gòu),主要是對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品價(jià)格的補(bǔ)貼；德國(guó)、荷蘭、英國(guó)也制定了適合自己國(guó)家農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展的補(bǔ)償政策,對(duì)限制農(nóng)藥化肥施用量、實(shí)行土地休耕、發(fā)展有機(jī)農(nóng)業(yè)等措施進(jìn)行了相關(guān)補(bǔ)償；日本、韓國(guó)與我國(guó)同屬亞洲國(guó)家,人多地少,其種植經(jīng)營(yíng)主體、農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展歷程均與我國(guó)相似。在防治農(nóng)田面源污染上,日本政府憑借一系列行之有效的法律措施而后來居上,主張進(jìn)行資助性政策引導(dǎo)；韓國(guó)的環(huán)境友好型農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)對(duì)家庭農(nóng)場(chǎng)和牧場(chǎng)制定了不同的污染防治措施,并對(duì)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量和提前退休農(nóng)民采取了相應(yīng)的補(bǔ)貼政策(表2）。因此,同一項(xiàng)生態(tài)補(bǔ)償政策在具體實(shí)施過程中,應(yīng)充分考慮種植經(jīng)營(yíng)主體、農(nóng)戶種植面積、土地租金、土地質(zhì)量、個(gè)人偏好等個(gè)體之間的差異,給予合理的補(bǔ)貼。

4 我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償存在問題及差別化補(bǔ)償建議

4.1 我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償存在問題

我國(guó)地域遼闊,區(qū)域差異明顯,農(nóng)田面源污染形勢(shì)嚴(yán)峻。面源污染的防治是技術(shù)、生態(tài)、經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)、政策等多因素的綜合工程,研究表明,生態(tài)補(bǔ)償是防治面源污染的有效手段［15-17］。文獻(xiàn)分析可知,農(nóng)田面源污染形成、土地利用、生態(tài)資源稟賦及社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的區(qū)域性和公眾意識(shí)覺悟及農(nóng)戶種植經(jīng)營(yíng)的個(gè)體性等方面均存在差異。我國(guó)在農(nóng)田污染治理方面的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償仍屬于起步階段,面源污染及生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)牟町愋杂绊懸蛩囟?、量化困難、工作量大、復(fù)雜性高,關(guān)于農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)难芯窟€較少［33］,在實(shí)施過程中存在補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)偏低［68］、監(jiān)管與評(píng)價(jià)體系不健全［69］、資金來源單一［70］、實(shí)踐困難、可持續(xù)性差［71］等問題。

在補(bǔ)償形式方面,往往重政府而輕市場(chǎng)補(bǔ)償,重現(xiàn)金而輕技術(shù)補(bǔ)償,重一次性而輕持續(xù)性補(bǔ)償［72］。常用的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)測(cè)算方法包括生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)價(jià)值法、市場(chǎng)比較法、機(jī)會(huì)成本法、意愿調(diào)查法等,但生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)類型劃分復(fù)雜,導(dǎo)致結(jié)果誤差較大［73］。由于很多非市場(chǎng)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)的數(shù)據(jù)獲取困難,機(jī)會(huì)成本法和市場(chǎng)比較法應(yīng)用有限［74］,而意愿調(diào)查法取決于個(gè)人偏好,不受現(xiàn)有市場(chǎng)限制,誤差較大［75］。此外,實(shí)踐過程中各部門缺少整體性和協(xié)調(diào)性,出現(xiàn)分頭建設(shè)、可持續(xù)性和關(guān)聯(lián)性差等問題［76］,補(bǔ)償效果不盡人意。如何更科學(xué)地探尋我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染的區(qū)域性差異和個(gè)體性差異,實(shí)施差別化補(bǔ)償,是未來亟待解決的問題。

表2 國(guó)內(nèi)外農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)的個(gè)體性差異補(bǔ)償Table 2 Individual compensation for agricultural ecology at home and abroad

4.2 我國(guó)農(nóng)田面源污染差別化生態(tài)補(bǔ)償實(shí)施建議

在未來的農(nóng)田面源污染生態(tài)補(bǔ)償中,需將農(nóng)田面源污染形成、土地利用、生態(tài)資源稟賦及社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的區(qū)域性差異和公眾意識(shí)覺悟及農(nóng)戶種植經(jīng)營(yíng)的個(gè)體性差異納入考慮范圍,實(shí)施差別化補(bǔ)償,確保生態(tài)補(bǔ)償公平、合理、有效。

4.2.1 區(qū)域性差異實(shí)施建議

依據(jù)農(nóng)田面源污染類型、土地利用方式、生態(tài)資源稟賦及社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)水平四個(gè)方面的區(qū)域性差異,實(shí)施生態(tài)補(bǔ)償時(shí)應(yīng)因地制宜,注重制度創(chuàng)新,避免“一刀切”,科學(xué)地制定差別化補(bǔ)償方案。

(1）針對(duì)不同的污染類型應(yīng)制定不同的防治措施,如在西北干旱地區(qū),農(nóng)膜是主要污染物,可制定相關(guān)措施對(duì)減少農(nóng)膜使用的農(nóng)戶進(jìn)行補(bǔ)償；在華北地區(qū),農(nóng)藥化肥的問題突出,應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)實(shí)施減肥減藥、配方施肥、有機(jī)肥替代化肥等政策；長(zhǎng)江三角洲地區(qū)重金屬污染嚴(yán)重,可考慮改變耕作制度、添加化學(xué)改良劑、種植吸附重金屬能力強(qiáng)的植物等。

(2）按照土地利用類型,可將農(nóng)田分為旱田、水田、水澆地或坡地、梯田、平原、丘陵或蔬菜地、農(nóng)作地、果園等類型,不同的土地利用類型面源污染程度不同,可將農(nóng)田分為未污染及輕度污染區(qū)、中度污染區(qū)和重度污染區(qū)三種類型,根據(jù)污染風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估、生態(tài)功能定位等,采取不同的污染治理方式以及不同的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償模式和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在輕度污染地區(qū),可從源頭進(jìn)行預(yù)防,減少農(nóng)藥化肥的使用,采用現(xiàn)代生物技術(shù),嚴(yán)格控制污染物的排放；在中度污染區(qū)域,除了減肥減藥措施,還要采取過程控制政策,改變種植作物種類、修建緩沖帶等；重度污染地區(qū)農(nóng)田必須進(jìn)行嚴(yán)格的管控,必要時(shí)可進(jìn)行休耕退耕,逐步改善耕地質(zhì)量。

(3）各地區(qū)的生態(tài)資源稟賦相差較大,可將農(nóng)田分為高產(chǎn)區(qū)、低產(chǎn)區(qū)、生態(tài)敏感脆弱區(qū)等。在高產(chǎn)區(qū),以減少農(nóng)藥、化肥用量為主；低產(chǎn)區(qū)可考慮改變種植作物、輪作模式或?qū)嵭袦y(cè)土配方施肥、按農(nóng)時(shí)施肥等方法以提高利用效率；在生態(tài)敏感脆弱區(qū),必須做好基線調(diào)研,建立系統(tǒng)的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償管理與實(shí)施方案,完善評(píng)價(jià)與監(jiān)督體系,從生態(tài)、經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)效益三方面進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià),嘗試構(gòu)建創(chuàng)新型監(jiān)管手段(如利用衛(wèi)星遙感技術(shù)、無線檢測(cè)設(shè)備等）,減少對(duì)周圍環(huán)境的破壞。

(4）目前我國(guó)生態(tài)補(bǔ)償中縱向轉(zhuǎn)移支付占主導(dǎo)地位,區(qū)域之間的橫向轉(zhuǎn)移支付現(xiàn)象少見［77］,可結(jié)合經(jīng)濟(jì)和市場(chǎng)手段,通過利益分配及責(zé)任分擔(dān)制度,將基于地方政府層面的區(qū)域內(nèi)農(nóng)田生態(tài)補(bǔ)償資金轉(zhuǎn)移支付額度納入地方政府財(cái)政體系中進(jìn)行核算,且區(qū)域之間應(yīng)注重橫向聯(lián)系,建立上下聯(lián)動(dòng)的綜合機(jī)制［78］,加強(qiáng)各部門間的緊密聯(lián)系,開展多樣化補(bǔ)償方式。

4.2.2 個(gè)體性差異實(shí)施建議

公眾意識(shí)與覺悟影響人們對(duì)環(huán)境保護(hù)和生態(tài)補(bǔ)償?shù)恼J(rèn)知,從而決定個(gè)人偏好和受償意愿。同一地區(qū)種植經(jīng)營(yíng)主體可能包括小農(nóng)戶、家庭農(nóng)場(chǎng)、合作社或企業(yè)等,相應(yīng)的家庭承包經(jīng)營(yíng)面積、農(nóng)業(yè)種植情況、耕地質(zhì)量、化肥農(nóng)藥的自主選擇以及農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)方式和發(fā)展取向也各不相同。因此,不同區(qū)域內(nèi)的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償要著眼于當(dāng)?shù)貙?shí)際情況,可嘗試采用計(jì)量經(jīng)濟(jì)模型量化估算不同群體的異質(zhì)性偏好［71］,并結(jié)合被補(bǔ)償者自身的特征要素,制定更加靈活彈性的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn),計(jì)算補(bǔ)償?shù)纳舷孪迾?biāo)準(zhǔn)和公眾意愿標(biāo)準(zhǔn)以作參考,提高生態(tài)補(bǔ)償效率。

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Progress of differentiated ecological compensation policies related to agricultural non-point source pollution

CUI Yan-zhi1,GAO Yang1,2*,ZHAO Gui-shen1
(1.College of Resources and Environmental Sciences,China Agricultural University,Beijing 100193,China;2.Key Laboratory of Agricultural Land Quality,Monitoring and Control,Ministry of Land and Resources,Beijing 100193,China）

By comparing the ecological compensation of agricultural non-point source pollution in China and abroad,this study analyzes the regional and individual differences of ecological compensation related to agricultural non-point source pollution,and suggests that an effective policy should explicitly consider regional-level heterogeneity including the formation of non-point source pollution,land use,ecological resource endowment,and socioeconomic development as well as individual-level heterogeneity such as public awareness and individual farming practices.We advocate a targeted ecological compensation regime and offer specific suggestions on the implementation of this differentiated policy in the context of Chinese agriculture.In the western region,households that reduce their use of agricultural plastic film,the main non-point source pollutant,can be compensated.However,in the eastern region,compensation should be concentrated on cutting down the use of fertilizers and pesticides.In the south,where heavy metals in the soil are a significant obstacle to regional development,the main methods of alleviation should focus on the improvement of the soil,including adding chemical additive or planting vegetation that adsorbs heavy metals.

agricultural non-point source pollution;ecological compensation;individual differences;regional differences

X592

A

1672-2043(2017）07-1232-10

10.11654/jaes.2017-0348

崔艷智,高陽,趙桂慎.農(nóng)田面源污染差別化生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究進(jìn)展［J］.農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境科學(xué)學(xué)報(bào),2017,36(7）.1232-1241.

CUI Yan-zhi,GAO Yang,ZHAO Gui-shen.Progress of differentiated ecological compensation policies related to agricultural non-point source pollution［J］.Journal of Agro-Environment Science,2017,36(7）.1232-1241.

2017-03-12

崔艷智(1993—）,女,河北保定人,碩士研究生,主要從事農(nóng)業(yè)面源污染與生態(tài)補(bǔ)償研究。E-mail:cuiyanzhi326@163.com

*通信作者：高陽E-mail:yanggao@cau.edu.cn

國(guó)家重點(diǎn)研發(fā)計(jì)劃(2016YFD0800906）；國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(41501087）

Project supported：National Key Research and Development Program(2016YFD0800906）;National Natural Science Foundation of China(41501087）