By Jonathan Jones
The bicentenary of the birth of a Swiss historian might not seem the most glamorous of anniversaries. Unlike his contemporary Karl Marx, also born in 1818, Jacob Burckhardt never inspired any revolutions and doesnt get his face on T-shirts. Yet some of us are celebrating the 200th birthday of Jacob Burckhardt lavishly1.
Once upon a time, newspapers used to have arts sections. Today, theyve caught up—very belatedly—with Burckhardt. The use of the term culture to mean a broad and changing flow of forms from opera to video games may seem like an innovation of the postmodern age, but it actually goes back to Burckhardts 1860 book The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy2.
Burckhardt invented culture as we know it—not just the official “arts”, but any human activity that has symbolic meaning.
Newspapers and their websites are still behind Burckhardt on this. Looking for articles about fashion and food? Youll find them in “l(fā)ifestyle”. Burckhardt saw these too as culture. Of course, so do we—it would just get hard to organise stuff if it was all classed in one big mix. But everyone knows today that clothes are significant cultural creations and that cooking is about meaning as much as flavour. The amazing thing is how clearly Burckhardt saw it in 1860.
The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy has not one single chapter dedicated to Renaissance art. It does have, however, a section called “Ridicule and Wit”. Burckhardt explores every nuance3 of how people expressed themselves in 15th-century Italy, from cruel jokes to street festivals. In one of his most astonishing insights he even explores how people listened—he shows how sitting through long speeches was a cultural rite4 in itself. Its a revelation that makes you think about music and performance in a totally new way. One day, someone will write the history of how we listen today, the cultural history of headphones and podcasts. And that historian will owe everything to Burckhardt.
So who was this daring thinker His portrait on Switzerlands 1,000-franc note makes him look stern5 yet sensitive. Born in Basel to a wealthy family and educated in Berlin, where he was taught by the pioneering historian Leopold von Ranke6, he doesnt come across as much of a rebel. Yet Burckhardts work is an insidious7 attack on Germanic nationalism. Writing at a time when Prussia was leading the unification of Germany and pride in Teutonic northern virtues was growing,8 Burckhardt went out of his way to belittle north European achievements and show that Italy was the true source of European genius.
He thrills to the ruthless violence of Cesare Borgia, and of Ferrante, ruler of Naples,9 who according to Burckhardt used to make his guests dine alongside the preserved corpses of his torture victims. Its the kind of gory10 detail that makes his masterpiece a still-powerful read. It also widens his notion of culture still further. For Burckhardt, politics and war are cultural forms. He gets this idea from the Renaissance itself—one of his inspirations, Machiavelli11, wrote a book called The Art of War.
In 2018 we seem to be living in Burckhardts world—and it aint pretty. Not only is everything culture, but politics is a mad art form, ruled by symbolic forces that surge through social media. Are the new populist monsters of politics the descendants of the Renaissance despots who shocked and fascinated Burckhardt?12
This quiet scholars great book helps us understand our world just as much as the writings of Marx. More so, I fear, in this age when culture trumps13 reality.
在諸多重要的周年紀念日中,某位瑞士歷史學家的二百周年誕辰似乎并非最令人矚目。與他同時代的偉大的思想家卡爾·馬克思不同,盡管同樣出生于1818年,雅各布·布爾克哈特卻不曾引領任何革命的洪流,他的臉龐也從未成為印在T恤上的文化符號。但的確有些人,正在隆重地慶祝著雅各布·布爾克哈特誕辰二百周年。
過去的報紙通常有名為“人文藝術”的版塊。時至今日,盡管有些遲,它們終于追上了布爾克哈特的步伐。人們常使用“文化”這一術語來指代從歌劇到電子游戲這些貫穿不同時代、日新月異的文娛活動,這一似乎誕生于后現(xiàn)代時期的常用說法,其實源自布爾克哈特1860年的作品《文藝復興時期的意大利文化》。
布爾克哈特發(fā)明了我們所熟知的“文化”,這個詞匯的內(nèi)涵不僅囊括了通常所謂的“人文藝術”,也包含了任何一種具有象征意義的人類活動。
在這方面,布爾克哈特無疑走在了所有報紙和網(wǎng)站的前面。想閱讀關于時尚與美食的文章?你會在名為“生活方式”的欄目中找到。而這些,同樣被布爾克哈特視為文化。當然,我們也一樣—— 若不將紛繁多樣的事物加以分類,整理起來將頗為麻煩。但如今,人人都認同服飾是重要的文化創(chuàng)造,而烹飪不僅關乎味道,更具有一定的文化內(nèi)涵。不可思議的是,布爾克哈特早在1860年就清晰地認識到了這一點。
在《文藝復興時期的意大利文化》一書中,沒有一章是講述文藝復興的藝術的,而是在一個名為“嘲弄與風趣”的版塊中,布爾克哈特探究了在15世紀的意大利人表達自我的每一個細微差別,從刻薄的笑話到街頭慶祝活動。他最令人驚訝的見解之一,便是探尋了人們?nèi)绾务雎牎麑⑷藗冏谂_下聽完一場冗長的演講這一行為,定義為一種文化儀式。這一啟示讓人們從全新的角度來思考音樂與表演。未來的某一天,某位歷史學家會撰寫歷史來記錄當今的人們?nèi)绾务雎?,也會寫就關于耳機與播客的文化史,而他則需要將這一切歸功于布爾克哈特。
那么這位大膽的思想家究竟是何許人也?1,000瑞士法郎紙幣上印的便是他的肖像,他看起來嚴厲而敏感。布爾克哈特出生于瑞士巴塞爾的一個富裕人家,在柏林接受教育,師從先驅歷史學家利奧波德·馮·蘭克,他平靜的人生中不曾有過叛逆的經(jīng)歷。然而,布爾克哈特的作品對于德國民族主義而言是一種頗有隱患的威脅。在他寫作的時期,普魯士正領導著德意志的統(tǒng)一之路,人們對日耳曼的北方美德抱有日益強烈的自豪感,但布爾克哈特卻特意貶低歐洲北方的成就,頌揚意大利才是歐洲精神的真正源頭。
布爾克哈特癡迷于切薩雷·波吉亞和那不勒斯王國統(tǒng)治者斐迪南一世的殘暴無情,據(jù)他的描述,后者曾讓他的賓客在酷刑至死的受害者的尸體旁享用晚宴。這種頗為血腥的細節(jié)令他的杰作充滿持久的張力與閱讀快感,也拓寬了他對文化這一概念的定義。對于布爾克哈特而言,政治與戰(zhàn)爭都是文化的形式。他是從文藝復興本身得到這種看法的——他的啟發(fā)者之一,馬基雅弗利,寫過一部名為《戰(zhàn)爭的藝術》的作品。
2018年,我們似乎生活在布爾克哈特的世界里,一個并不美好圓滿的世間。不僅是關于文化的一切不再美好,政治也成了一種瘋狂的藝術形式,被席卷社交媒體的各式具有象征意義的力量所統(tǒng)治。這些新時代的政治民粹主義怪物,是不是文藝復興時期那些曾令布爾克哈特震撼并著迷的專制君主的后代傳承?
這位低調的學者的偉大作品幫助我們理解這個世界,就如同馬克思的作品那樣。但在這個文化統(tǒng)治現(xiàn)實的時代,恐怕布爾克哈特的影響更甚。
1. lavishly: 慷慨地,豐富地。
2. The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy:《文藝復興時期的意大利文化》,雅各布·布爾克哈特創(chuàng)作的歷史學著作。該書主要論述了當時意大利的政治、文化思想和日常生活的發(fā)展歷程,從多角度詮釋了這一時期意大利人所體現(xiàn)的“人文主義”近代精神。布爾克哈特在已有研究的基礎上從新的視角切入,構建了文藝復興研究的新體系。
3. nuance:(方式、顏色、意義等的)細微差別。
4. rite: 儀式,典禮。
5. stern: 嚴厲的,苛刻的。
6. Leopold von Ranke: 利奧波德·馮·蘭克(1795—1886),19世紀德國重要的歷史學家,也是西方近代史學的重要奠基者之一,被譽為“近代史學之父”。
7. insidious: 潛伏的,暗中為害的。
8. Prussia: 普魯士,位于北歐的原古普魯士族居地,1701年起成為王國,1871年以其為中心建立了統(tǒng)一的德意志帝國;Teutonic:德意志民族特點的,日耳曼人風格的。
9. Cesare Borgia: 切薩雷·波吉亞(1475或1476—1507),即瓦倫蒂諾公爵,是意大利文藝復興時期的軍官、貴族、政治人物和樞機主教;Ferrante: 斐迪南一世(1423—1494),那不勒斯王國國王,1458至1494年間在位;Naples: 那不勒斯王國,中世紀意大利南部一封建國家。
10. gory: 暴力血腥的。
11. Machiavelli: 馬基雅弗利(1469—1527),意大利歷史學家、政治思想家、作家。他是意大利文藝復興時期的重要人物。著有 《君主論》《論李維》《戰(zhàn)爭的藝術》等。
12. populist: 平民主義的,民粹主義的;despot: 專制君主,暴君。
13. trump: 勝過,打敗。