CHEN Shudong

Abstract: Intended as part of a follow-up book-length project of Comparative Literature in the Light of Chinese Prosody (Lexington Books, 2018), this paper continues the arguments regarding how function words could play such decisive but often unrecognized roles in surreptitiously and even often serendipitously impacting our reading not only within but also across disciplines and cultures.The paper argues, in other words, how this underestimated role of function words, as in the case of the modal particle ye 也, could play just as important a role in Zhongyong《中庸》(The Doctrine of the Mean) as the equally commonplace definite article “the,” the conjunction “and,” and preposition and conjunction “after,” etc.in T.S.Eliot’s Four Quartets (to be discussed in another paper given the limit of space) in accordance with the linguistic environments or contexts that define the particular textual expressions within the given cultural milieu and literary genre.Along these lines, we can also better understand the intricate relationships between meaning and sound, mind and rhythm, eye and ear, and intra- and extra-linguistic elements, for a healthy counterbalance to our habitual emphasis on meaning or its cultural and visual appearance, often at the expense of sound.In this way, we can understand how otherwise “silent” or insignificant sound that each function word enlivens also influences the way we read or interpret both poetry and prose.2 Even if merely as part of a follow-up book length project of my new publication Comparative Literature in the Light of Chinese Prosody (Lexington Books, 2018), this paper literally aims to fill the gap concerning the evident lack of scholarly attention to the linguistic or prosodic side of scholarship on Zhongyong.

Keywords: zhongyong； function words； prosody； reading； translation

1.Introduction: Ye 也as the Trivially Familiar that Enlivens the Text

M eaning is alive only with indispensable

qi

氣 (spirit), or in Wittgenstein’s word,“ sense,” which must accompany every word in the live context with each of its actual application.No spirit, however, could ever be simply alive if it were not alive in sound and rhythm, the irreplaceable physical reality of any word, meaning, or verbal context； neither could this physical realty ever be possible without its being intimately mediated or interweaved by the essential, ever-present, and often too familiar to ever be noticeable trivial function words.Be it in poetry or prose, the live power of words is alive, however, like the live power of

yinyang

陰陽 (yin and yang), only in the actively maintained flux and balance through the otherwise barely noticeable but crucial pauses, stresses, and phonemes that each function word enlivens.If this is the understanding we need to tackle any text in the light of recent studies of Chinese prosody, its validity and actual applicability must be tested or prove testable worldwide； if it could be applied in analyzing

Four Quartets

, it must also be applicable with

Zhongyong

regardless of the differences as to genre, style, time periods, and cultures.In ways so reminiscent of the theme-interweaving, motifmaking, and phonemes carrying function words in

Four Quartets

, the function words, such as the modal particle

ye

, also play a seemingly routine but truly irreplaceable role in the context of the masterpiece. Analogously, the “magic” power of function words could be understood in terms of what Archimedes of Syracuse needs as a mere little spot upon which he could place his “fulcrum” and then “move the world” with a “l(fā)ong enough lever.” It could also be understood as idiomatically with regard to 四兩撥千斤 (a light touch that moves the overwhelming obstacle)； it could even be further appreciated as an otherwise utterly unnoticeable “switch” or hidden button that could suddenly change the entire course or direction of reading.For detailed cases from in English, Chinese (modern and classic), French, German, and Japanese, see my own (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018), which means to be a timely piece of scholarship that fills the gap regarding the subject matter especially from an interdisciplinary and cross-cultural perspective.Even if merely a total of 125 out of a text of 4449 words,

ye

has a subtle but instrumental role in the context along with other function words； For further details, see Shudong Chen, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018), 153-54.it has one of the most variable, adaptable, and indispensable text-mediating, motif-tone-setting roles to play however often it can also appear as something dispensable, purely rhetorical, or decorative, like an “architectural ornament,” which, as in Wittgenstein’s vivacious analogy, is like a “architectural [decoration...] a kind of ornamental coping

that

supports nothing”； Ludwig Wittgenstein, , 3rd ed., trans.G.E.M.Anscombe (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 217, 85e.however, it could also appear as something so indispensable that always suggests certain concurring or corresponding “sense” of moment, motion, mood, or, again, analogously in Wittgenstein’s acute perception, the “atmosphere accompanying the word [...] carried with [it] into every kind of application.”Such scenarios could also be in the famous Chinese essayist of Qing, Liu Dakui’s 劉大櫆 (1698-1780) mind when he argued how important function words really were for Confucius.In “Lunwen ouji”《論文偶記》(Essay of Occasion), Liu argues how classical writings before Confucius were less expressive because, other than the content words, there are simply not enough function words for people to use.When Confucius writes, he has enough function words to make his expression as vividly as he wants.This is why, as Liu emphasizes, when one writes, there must be enough function words at one’s disposal to bring out the otherwise unutterable spirit or

qi

of composition, which is alive, as Liu sees it, only in the rhythm of the words.To drive home his point, Liu calls on us to imagine “what would happen should not there be enough

xu zi

虛字 (function words) for us to use?” From time to time, there are brilliant observations from Liu Dakui as from other brilliant scholars, such as Sun Deqian 孫德謙（1869-1935）, Qian Zhongshu 錢鍾書（1910-1998）, Zhu Guangqian 朱光潛（1897-1986）, Wang Li 王力（1900-1986）, and Feng Shengli； there is, however, still a need for a systematic study especially in the form of a monograph, such as my own (Lexington Books, 2018), which, for the first time ever, consistently reflects on various brilliant but otherwise scattered or discrete observations regarding the indispensable and yet often overlooked role of function words especially from an interdisciplinary and cross-cultural perspective in terms of such cases as they frequently appear in Chinese (modern and classical) as in other major modern languages, such as English, French, German, and Japanese.

2.The Power of Ye in its Presence and Absence

To understand

Zhongyong

, it could therefore also mean that we must understand the role of function words both philosophically and prosodically, to focus the familiar, something as critical and yet seemingly too familiar to appear ever noticeable as such a commonplace modal particle

ye.

The crucial importance of function words especially with meaning-making tone could be particularly understood regarding the modal particle along with other function words, such as

yan

焉, in terms of whether, when, where, or how it be used or must not be used； it must be understood, in other words, when it must not be omitted, when it could be omitted for a probably better result but not omitted, or when it is omitted but still appears as if it were not omitted.Also reminiscent of “salt in the water,” one of the most frequently used analogies in the

Upanishads

, the impact of ye can be further observed not only by its presence in the text, but by its absence.What is the difference between the judgement sentences used with

ye

and without it? Without

ye

, a sentence could sound more like a straightforward statement of fact； it may sound as if it were selfevidently of a pure matter of fact, which needs no further authorial confirmation； it could amount to emphasize how the fact would speak for itself, and additional sign of confirmation or emphasis as might be indicated by

ye

would only appear redundant or even suggest a lack of confidence.This simple paragraph also sets rhythmically the narrative pattern of

Zhongyong

along with all the rest by using

ye

wherever it must be, wherever it could be but not must be, or wherever it could be but not be.

君子之道，辟如行遠必自邇，辟如登高必自卑 …… 子曰：“父母其順矣乎！” (15)

In traveling a long way, one must set off from what is near at hand, and in climbing to a high place, one must begin from a low ground, such is the proper way (

dao

道) of exemplary persons (

junzi

君子).[...] The Master said, “In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence!”In contrast, a sentence with

ye

, could sound more like a statement with authoritative judgement, confirmation, or assurance:

子曰：“人皆曰予知，驅(qū)而納諸罟擭陷阱之中，而莫之知辟也。人皆曰予知，擇乎中庸，而不能期月守也?！?8)

The Master said, “everyone is saying, ‘I am wise (

zhi

知),’ but being driven forward they run headlong into nets, traps, and pitfalls without any of them knowing how to avoid them.” Everyone is saying, “I am wise, but having chosen to focus the familiar affairs of the day (

zhongyong

中庸), they are not able to sustain this for even the duration of a month.”The particle

ye

at each end of sentence gives a final assurance regarding what is stated.

3.The Prosodic Rule Regulating Presence and Absence of Ye

As to whether, where, when, or how

ye

must or must not be used, it is not an arbitrary matter, but an issue that must be handled rhetorically according to prosodic grammar.While

ye

in the phrase

dao ye zhe

道也者 could be omitted, the word

ye

in “不可須臾離也，可離非道也” (As for this proper way, we cannot quit it even for an instant) (1) could not, especially regarding the first

ye

immediately following

li

離 (to quit).From a prosodic viewpoint, without

ye

, this part of the sentence could not stand by itself as a usual three disyllabic feet phrase, i.e., 不可/須臾/離也.As a monosyllabic form, the single word離, as a rule, simply “cannot stand alone where an independent prosodic unit [with at least two syllables] is required” (Feng, 2012, 7) if not to make the text sound awkward.Even if 離could be technically combined with 須臾to make a trisyllabic foot /不可/須臾離, it would still sound awkward as if the measure is taken only for a mere technically accountable but unnaturally sounding trisyllabic foot.As to the second part of this sentence, even without

ye

this part could still transform itself from a natural sounding phrase with one disyllabic foot and one trisyllabic foot as可離/非道也 into a phrase with a two disyllabic feet phrase 可離/非道.Even if this transformed one may not sound as natural or smooth as the former, it may still be acceptable contingent upon whether or how the phrase ends with 道 as noun or as verb.This particular tone of authorial judgement, however, does not sound assertive as it otherwise would also because of the indispensable presence or mediation of

ye

, such as in the sentence “天地之道，博也，厚也，高也，明也，悠也，久也” (The way of heaven and earth can be captured in one phrase: Since events are never duplicated, their production is unfathomable.The way of heaven and earth is broad, is thick, is high, is brilliant, is far-reaching, is enduring.) (26). I use Roger T.Ames and David L.Hall’s translation.I may also use other versions for necessary comparative references, such as Ian Johnson and Wang Ping’s version (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2012).The presence of

ye

in this case is not only necessary in making a typical judgement sentence but also indispensable in keeping the sentence further smoothed out to be truly rhythmic with each of the two phrases maintaining a disyllabic foot as the prosodic rule requires.Just imagine how otherwise awkwardly rushed or abrupt these juxtaposed monosyllabic “feet” would sound in the context as “博，厚，高，明，悠，久.” Without the mediation of

ye

, each content word, as a rule, could not naturally stand by itself as a monosyllabic unit especially in a classical text of high literary quality. As scholars have already pointed out, such as the early Republican philologist Huang Kan黃侃 (1886-1935), how in Chinese, the sound (refers to morpheme, by Feng) is monosyllabic while the tone (refers to prosodic unit, by Feng) is disyllabic, and thus monosyllabic words often become disyllabic ones.Consequently, there comes one meaning often with two words, i.e. 天 (sky) as 皇天 (sky) or 昊天 (sky) especially in literary texts.This syllabic flexibility of Chinese vocabularies is emphasized by linguists, such as Guo Shaoyu 郭紹虞 (1893-1984) as 彈性詞 (“elastic words”) (1).For details, see Shengli Feng, the First Chapter of (New York: Routledge, 2017).With

ye

the sentences sound neither rushed nor restrained but in a natural tone of confidence, assurance, and yet without any tint of “assertion” or “assertiveness.” Imagine how this simplified version “兔死, 狗烹, 鳥盡, 弓藏, 敵破, 臣亡” would sound in the original context of Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 (145-86) “Han Xin Lie Zhuan” 韓信列傳 (Biography of Han Xin) of 史記 (Records of the Historian): Without the original “redundant” adjectives, would the line sound as crispy as this famous line from “斷竹, 續(xù)竹, 飛土, 逐肉” but not as elegant as in the original context? For further details, see Shudong Chen, (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018), 159.This necessity seems also to be acknowledged and respected in the English versions.The sentence could certainly be translated in a much simpler way as “[t]he way of heaven and earth is broad, thick, high, brilliant, far-reaching, and enduring” without the repetitive use of “is” as in Ames and Hall’s version.This repetitive use of “is,” however, certainly reflects a respectable intention to simulate the mediating power of

ye

while making the translation more relaxed but still rhythmically emphatic as in the original.The same attempt could also be detected in Ian Johnson and Wang Ping’s version as “[t]he way of Heaven is broad； it is thick, it is high； it is bright； it is far reaching, and it is long-lasting” (2012, 469).Does not the repetition of “it is” also reveal the translators’ conscious efforts in simulating the subtle impact of

ye

as an indispensable function word as in the original text?Even if not for the sheer necessity,

ye

in 道也者makes it possible for the phrase to have a soft, melodic trisyllabic foot that replaces an equally legitimate and perhaps even more usual disyllabic one.Without

ye

, the phrase 道者 could stand by itself without any possible change of meaning； it may still sound assured or emphatic but not as assuredly relaxed as in the soft trisyllabic tone with

ye

in-between especially regarding Ames and Hall’s version of 道也者，不可須臾離也 (As for this proper way, we cannot quit it even for an instant), which reflects the subtle difference of tone that

ye

suggests.With the alternative verbal patterns, i.e., “as for this [...]” “this notion of [...] ” and “ [...] then [...],” Ames and Hall’s version appears significantly reflective of the translators’ self-conscious efforts in capturing and rendering the subtle influence of

ye

in translating 道也者 as “

As for

this proper way,” 中也者 as “

this notion

of equilibrium” and 和也者 as “ [...] harmony

then

is the advancing of the proper way in the world” especially compared with Johnson and Wang’s rather straightforward version as respectively “The Way cannot be departed even for an instant” (215), “[t]he center is the great foundation of the world” and “Harmony is the all-pervading Way of the world.” The latter version does not reflect the subtle influence of

ye

on the tone.

Ye

could therefore also be seen as in a role of a “topic particle” reminiscent of

wa

は or

ga

が in Japanese, as in “子曰：‘回之為人也，擇乎中庸，得一善，則拳拳服膺弗失之矣’” ［The Master said, “Hui chose the path of focusing the familiar affairs of the day (

zhongyong

中庸), and on gaining something worthwhile from doing so, would clasp it tightly to his breast and not lose it -such as the likes of Yan Hui” (8)］, The case of could be further appreciated in terms of the“ trivial” but most crucial and yet often least noticeable in the context, such as the serendipitous role of や in Japanese haiku as the strategic“ cutting word” (切れ字) that suggests an emotional and reflective pause for the“ surprise” yet to come.The important particle, however, is often not even translated as in the piece below (Bash? 417):
古池や (furu ike ya) The ancient pond
蛙飛び込む (kawazu tobikomu) A frog jumps in— and “中也者，天下之大本也；和也者，天下之達道也。致中和，天地位焉, 萬物育焉” (1).This notion of equilibrium and focus (

zhong

中) is the great root of the world； harmony then is the advancing of the proper way (

dadao

達道) in the world.When equilibrium and focus are sustained and harmony is fully realized, the heavens and earth maintain their proper places and all things flourish in the world.The addition of

ye

makes the sentence sound further balanced with its measured and personably assuring tone of emphasis instead of an otherwise nonchalant and matter-of-fact tone.This

ye

-mediated tone could even be further appreciated if compared with the subtle verbal elegance of a sentence structure like that of Buffon’s “Le style, c’est l’homme,” instead of the more direct “Le style est l’homme.”

4.Dancing in Pair with Yan 焉

Neither would the significant power of

ye

be fully revealed without considering the entire verbal context that enlivens

ye

it along with other function words, such as

yan

.The full confidence and firm judgement conveyed by the

ye

-carrying sentences could also be seen in terms of its cooperative relation with

yan

.Barely 27 in total, the function word

yan

, however, could be understood as a possible alternative of

ye

in the context；

yan

conveys subtle judgment while showing results through descriptive statements of facts or states of being.In the context,

ye

and

yan

appear interchangeable.

王天下有三重焉，其寡過矣乎！上焉者雖善無徵，無徵不信，不信民弗從；下焉者雖善不尊，不尊不信，不信民弗從。(29)

For the person who would be the true king over the empire, attention to three important matters will minimize errors.With respect to ritual observances that were practiced by those who came before the Zhou kings, however efficacious (

shan

善) they might have been, they cannot be corroborated (

zheng

徵), and since they cannot corroborated, they lack credence (

xin

信), and lacking credence, the common people will not follow them.When

ye

could be used to replace

yan

, the sentence may not change in meaning but the tone that colors the meaning in ways reminiscent of Wittgenstein’s “atmosphere” may change of tonic hues.The function word

yan

is thus often subtler with its tone of judgement particularly regarding the possible facts； it is not of a sheer judgement based solely on logic and mere facts.As is the case in the first chapter of

Zhongyong

, the use of

yan

could sound more inviting in a way, like saying to the audience, “This is what I think.So what do you think of it thereby?”

天命之謂性，率性之謂道，修道之謂教。道也者，不可須臾離也，可離非道也。是故君子

戒慎乎其所不睹，恐懼乎其所不聞。莫見乎隱，莫顯乎微，故君子慎其獨也。

喜怒哀樂之未發(fā)，謂之中；發(fā)而皆中節(jié)，謂之和；中也者，天下之大本也；和也者，天下之達道也。致中和，天地位焉, 萬物育焉。(1)

What

tian

天 commands (

ming

命) is called natural tendencies (

xing

性)； drawing out these natural tendencies is called the proper way (

dao

道)； improving upon this way is called education (

jiao

教).As for this proper way, we cannot quit it even for an instant.Were it even possible to quit it, it would not be the proper way.It is for this reason that exemplary persons (

junzi

君子) are so concerned about what is not seen, so anxious about what is not heard.There is nothing more present than what is imminent, and nothing more manifest than what is inchoate.Thus, exemplary persons are ever concerned about uniqueness.The moment at which joy and anger, grief and pleasure, have yet to arrive is called a nascent of equilibrium (z

hong

中)； once the emotions have arisen, that they are all brought into proper focus (z

hong

) called harmony (

he

和).This notion of equilibrium and focus (

zhong

) is the great root of the world； harmony then is the advancing of the proper way (

dadao

達道) in the world.When equilibrium and focus are sustained and harmony is fully realized, the heavens and earth maintain their proper places and all things flourish in the world.This

ye

-

yan

relationship could be observed in the beginning paragraph.While

ye

may suggest certainty of an observation,

yan

suggests a tentative tone of making sure of the certainty by inviting opinions for confirmation as if asking “[i]s it so or not so?”

Ye

could suggest straightforward confidence, but

yan

may imply profound doubt with the often ironically interchangeable modes between an emphatic rhetorical and simultaneously an urgent real question for vital information. This situation is not hard to imagine for anyone who teaches at a university or college.A student who has missed many classes finally shows up one day with such a usual question, “Did I miss anything?” How irritating the question really is.Speechless then, we might have nonetheless thus murmured to ourselves afterwards, “Are we not doing anything in class for all these days when you’re are not around?” “You don’t know that you’ve missed the whole Renaissance period that we must cover for the semester, do you?” But, to be fair to the student, as we may later realize, is there really any other way for the student to make the question? Of course, the question that the student has asked could probably be an innocent or involuntary “rhetorical question,” which means the student is so concerned that he wants to be confirmed that he eventually has not missed too much or anything important or unrecoverable.The student may also be truly anxious to know what and how much he has literally missed whether important or not.The question is probably also asked only as a casual greeting, which means “I am back now and sorry for the absence.” For further discussion with related literary cases, such as Langston Hughes’s “Harlem,” Emily Dickinson’s “My Life had stood - a Loaded Gun,” and Robert Browning’s “dramatic monologue,” see Shudong Chen, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018), 29.

唯天下至誠，為能經(jīng)綸天下之大經(jīng)，立天下之大本，知天地之化育。夫焉有所倚？肫肫其仁！淵淵其淵！浩浩其天！茍不固聰明圣知達天德者，其孰能知之？(32)

Only those in the world of utmost creativity (

zhicheng

至誠) are able to separate out and braid together the many threads on the great loom of the world.Only they set the great root of the world and realize the transforming and nourishing processes of heaven and earth.

How could there be anything they depend upon?

So earnest, they are authoritative (

ren

仁)；So profound, they are a bottomless abyss (

yuan

淵)；So pervasive, they are

tian

天 (firmament).Only those whose own capacities of discernment and sagely wisdom extend to the powers of

tian

could possibly understand them.Such possible interchangeability between a rhetoric question and a real question could be seen as applicable with these seemingly quintessential sentences of statements with some

yan

-fine-tuning ones.

今夫天，斯昭昭之多，及其無窮也，日月星辰系焉，萬物覆焉今夫地，一撮土之多。及其廣厚，載華岳而不重，振河海而不泄，萬物載焉。今夫山，一卷石之多，及其廣大，草木生之，禽獸居之，寶藏興焉，今夫水，一勺之多，及其不測， 黿、鼉、蛟龍、魚鱉生焉，貨財殖焉。(26)

Now the firmament (

tian

天) is just an accumulation of light, but given its boundlessness, the sun, moon, stars, and constellations are all woven through it, and all things are covered by it./ As for the earth, it is just an accumulation of pinches of dirt, and given its expense and thickness, it bears up the mountains of Hua and Yue without feeling their weight, circulates the waters of the rivers and seas without any leakage, and bears up all things./ As for the mountains, they are just an accumulation of handfuls of stone, and yet given their expense and size, grasses and trees grow on them, birds and beasts find refuge in them, and deposits of precious resources are replete within them./ And as for the waters, they are just an accumulation of spoonfuls of waters, and yet given their boundlessness, giant tortoises, alligators, a variety of dragons, fishes, and turtles live in them, and precious goods and commodities are reproduced within them.As the

ye

-rich first paragraph, in which every disyllabic phrase ends rhythmically with

ye

, such as this line “天地之道，博也，厚也，高也，明也，悠也，久也,” the particle

ye

appears so indispensable to make a coherent ear-enamoring

ye

-

yan

-rich second paragraph.In this way, even these seemingly insignificant verbal elements, such as

ye

and

yan

, could also be observed as the actively contributing elements to the making of a coherent text even if merely in terms of their unpremeditated or accidental adjacency or contiguity.As a kind of

yinyang

balance, the first-toned

yan

, with a calming and long-sounding tone, emphasizes the message of the sentences without sounding emphatic, whether they are intended as regular narrative sentences, rhetorical questions, or urgent real questions, whereas

ye

with its third tone could strike as emphatic in sounding.Close in sounding but not exactly similar,

ye

and

yan

as the alliterated pair of function words could also add variety to the text with subtlety of meaning and coherent sounding and rhyming.The close sounding of

ye

and

yan

could also have such a timely impact of

yinyang

balance especially when they are mixed in use whether deliberately or accidently because the rhythm of “yinyang,” according to Robin Wang, “is the pattern of timing.” Robin R.Wang, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 138.As if to set a timely tone of motif, the beginning paragraph starts with its mixed use of affirmative

ye

in a third tone and subtly voiced observation, judgement, and even doubt through

yan

with peaceful, soothing, far-reaching sounding of the first tone.Then, the text uses all

ye

with no

yan

until paragraphs 10, 11, and 12 in which

yan

is intensively used as if to give a softening up tone or balancing mood of

yin

after the affirmative

yang

that dominates the previous paragraphs.After these three paragraphs,

yan

appears three times only in 13, 14, and 17 as if returning the text entirely to the dominance of

ye

until paragraphs 26, 27, 28, and 29.This intensive use of

yan

does not appear until after the intensive use of

ye

in Paragraph 26, immediately following the impressive

ye

-intensive line, “天地之道......博也，厚也，高也，明也，悠也，久也.” With such a sequence, it seems as if

yan

were only used at this particular moment to counterbalance the intensive use of

ye

with its own intensive appearance； it seems as if

yan

were also used to confirm or emphasize what is stated as sentences of judgement with descriptive narrative, which nonetheless could function simultaneously as rhetorical questions and urgent real questions for confirming information, because

yan

is also an interrogative modal particle.With

yan

used in such ambiguous ways, especially when it could possibly suggest an urgent actual question for confirming information, the use of

yan

would also immediately cast doubt on anything otherwise appearing so positively confirmed by the lines whether as judgment sentences, narrative sentences, or rhetorical questions.As if to counterbalance the affirmative tone that may sound slightly too strong with the use of

ye

, the alternative use of

yan

appears to emphasize the same message but without making the text suggest in any way even a slightest emphatic or monotonously judgmental tone as it otherwise would still be possible when

ye

is continuously in use.Before the whole text of

Zhongyong

concludes in paragraph 33,

yan

appears for the last time in paragraph 32 in the form of a question “夫焉有所倚?” as if mediating two sets of powerful lines for the motif-finalizing tone of the entire paragraph.

唯天下至誠，為能經(jīng)綸天下之大經(jīng)，立天下之大本，知天地之化育。夫焉有所倚？肫肫其仁！淵淵其淵！浩浩其天！茍不固聰明圣知達天德者，其孰能知之？

Only those in the world of utmost creativity (

zhicheng

至誠) are able to separate out and braid together the many threads on the great loom of the world.Only they set the great root of the world and realize the transforming and nourishing processes of heaven and earth./ How could there be anything they depend upon? / So earnest, they are authoritative (

ren

仁)； / So profound, they are a bottomless abyss (

yuan

淵)； / So pervasive, they are

tian

./ Only those whose own capacities of discernment and sagely wisdom extend to the powers of

tian

could possibly understand them.This question, however, could be simultaneously a rhetorical question and a real question in ways as the function word

yan

may also indicate as relative/inquisitive pronoun.Either way, it could only intensify the utmost immeasurable immensity and immanency of the universe often so seemingly at once within and beyond human comprehension.The interplay of

ye

and

yan

in this way adds so much to the fluidity of the text with subtle

yinyang

balance in motion, in movement, and amidst variable moods, reminiscent of the rhythm of “

yinyang

” of perfect timing through the

ye

-dominated but timely alternated pattern with the

yan

-sustained lines. As a matter of fact, for the pattern to work in the context, there are simply far too many “unsound heroes,” such as many other function words之, 而, 乎, 者, 矣，斯, 其, ze則, 也與, 矣夫, etc.Together, they make the context in which pattern appears so alive enlivening the context that also enlivens it at the same time.

5.A Contextual Matter of Choice: The Presence and Absence of Ye

The same

ye

-dominated pattern repeats itself in the long sentences interweaved with other function words to make coherent narrative rhythms especially in the form of parallelism.

子曰：“好學(xué)近乎知，力行近乎仁， 知恥近乎勇。知斯三者，則知所以修身；知所以修身，則知所以治人；知所以治人，則知所以治天下國家矣?！?/p>

“凡為天下國家有九經(jīng)，曰：修身也。尊賢也，親親也，敬大臣也，體群臣也。子庶民也，來百工也，柔遠人也，懷諸侯也。修身則道立，尊賢則不惑，親親則諸父昆弟不怨，敬大臣則不眩，體群臣則士之報禮重，子庶民則百姓勸，來百工則財用足，柔遠人則四方歸之，懷諸侯則天下畏之。

齊明盛服，非禮不動。 所以修身也；去讒遠色，賤貨而貴德，所以勸賢也；尊其位，重其祿，同其好惡， 所以勸親親也；官盛任使，所以勸大臣也；忠信重祿，所以勸士也；時使薄斂，所以勸百姓也；日省月試，既廩稱事，所以勸百工也；送往迎來，嘉善而矜不能， 所以柔遠人也；繼絕世，舉廢國，治亂持危。朝聘以時，厚往而薄來，所以懷諸侯也。凡為天下國家有九經(jīng)，所以行之者一也?！?20)

The Master said, “Being fond of learning is close to acting wisely (

zhi

知)； advancing on the way with enthusiasm is close to acting authoritatively (

ren

仁), and having a sense of shame is close to acting with courage (

yong

勇).Those who realize these three things realize how to cultivate their persons； those who realize how to cultivate their persons realize how to bring order to others； those who realized how to order others properly realize how to bring order to the world, the state, and the family.”

In general there are nine guidelines in administering the empire, the state, and family: Cultivate one’s person, esteem those of superior character, be devoted to one’s kin, respect the high ministers, be inclusive of the whole assembly of ministers, treat the common people as one’s children, attract the various artisans, be tolerant of those from afar, and cherish the various nobles.If one generates one’s person, the way will be established therefrom； if one esteems those of superior character, there will be no confusion； if one treats one’s kin as kin, one’s many uncles and brothers will harbor no ill will； if one respects the high ministers, there will be no deception； if one is inclusive of the whole assembly of the ministers, the scholar-officials will repay one’s courtesies twofold； if one treats the common people as one’s children, the various clans will be much encouraged； if one attracts the various artisans, materials and skills needed to use them will be sufficient； if one is tolerant of those from afar, people from distant quarters will flock to one； if one cherishes the various nobles, the world will hold one in awe.

Fasting, purifying oneself, putting one’s finest clothes and not making a move that violates ritual propriety is the way to cultivate one’s person； diminishing flatterers and distancing enticing faces, making light of riches and honoring excellence, is the way to encourage those of superior character； esteeming their status, being generous with emoluments, and sharing their likes and dislikes is the way to encourage kinship among kin； providing an abundance of offers to carry out their charges is the way to encourage the high ministers； being generous in emolutions where people do their utmost (

zhong

忠) and live up to their word (

xin

信) is the way to encourage scholar-officials； limiting corvée labor to the appropriate times and keeping taxes to a minimum is the way to encourage the hundred clans； on the basis of daily scrutiny and monthly examinations to give everyone their due is the way to encourage the various artisans； to send off those who are leaving and welcome those who are arriving , to commend the skillful and to show compassion to the incompetent, is the way to be tolerant to those from afar to continue lineages that have been broken, to revive states that have collapsed, to restore order where there is chaos and to take control where there are crises, to fix the times for vassals to present themselves at court envoys and for court to be dispatched, sending the envoys with generous bounty but expecting only token tribute on the arrival of the vassals—this is the way to cherish the various nobles.In general there are nine guidelines in administering the empire, the state, and the family, yet the way of implementing them is one and the same.In the first paragraph, whether or how

ye

is used when the text may sound better without using it or whether it is not used when it could be used is strictly contingent upon the live verbal context regarding not only a few lines but also the overall rhythmic pattern in line with the textcontrolling parallelism.In the first paragraph,

ye

, for instance, is used in ways reminiscent of the rhythm-setting and motifdefining “topic marks” that prepare the audience for the following issues through these juxtaposed

ye

-ended phrases, “修身也, 尊賢也，親親也，敬大臣也，體群臣也。子庶民也，來百工也，柔遠人也，懷諸侯也” (Cultivate one’s person, esteem those of superior character, be devoted to one’s kin, respect the high ministers, be inclusive of the whole assembly of ministers, treat the common people as one’s children, attract the various artisans, be tolerant of those from afar, and cherish the various nobles).Without

ye

and just as “修身, 尊賢，親親，敬大臣，體群臣。子庶民，來百工，柔遠人，懷諸侯,” the nine sentence lines would sound much simpler particularly regarding the six quadrisyllabic sentences from a prosodic viewpoint.If not considering

ye

inserted as the necessary rhythm-setting and motif-defining “topic marks” for the long paragraph as a whole, the presence of

ye

does make the line sound a little awkward with an otherwise lively rhythmic pattern forcefully slowed down especially regarding its six quadrisyllabic sentences.Obviously, with the presence of

ye

, each of the otherwise quite natural sounding trisyllabic sentences must be split into two disyllabic sentences to make space for the addition of

ye

； it must be so to satisfy the prosodic rule that allows at least the minimum disyllabic foot to stand itself alone as a phrase or sentence in ways as “敬大 / 臣也，體群 / 臣也,子庶 / 民也，來百 / 工也，柔遠 / 人也，懷諸 / 侯也.” Without the added

ye

, the lines 修身, 尊賢，親親，敬大臣，體群臣。子庶民，來百工，柔遠人，懷諸侯could sound as crispy as the lively poetic lines in

Shijing

《詩經(jīng)》(The Book of Songs), such as “斷竹, 續(xù)竹, 飛土, 逐肉” and its following trisyllabic phrase could also sound as natural as the ones in

Daodejing

《道德經(jīng)》(The Book of the Way), especially the initial two lines. The scenario could also be further understood along with Sima Xiangru’s 司馬相如 賦 (epideictic rhapsody), which uses 27 trisyllabic sentences out of a total of 37 multisyllabic sentences in 《子虛賦》(Rhapsody of Sir Vacuous).
于是乃相與獠于蕙圃 And then, together, they hunt in Basil Garden.
媻姍勃寧上乎金提 Sauntering slowly, lingering leisurely, they ascend the Metal Dike.
…
波鴻沸 Waves grandly surge,
涌泉起 While bubbling fountains spurt,
…
麗乎淫淫 Strung together in a steady stream,
般乎裔裔 Spread out in a catenating cortege.
(Knechtges 1987, 66-67)
For details, see 陳曙東：《 中國古典詩文的韻律學(xué)解讀》，《清華學(xué)報》2012年9月第42卷第3期，第379—400頁。［CHEN Shudong,“ Zhongguo gudian shiwen de yunlüxue jiedu” (Reading Prosodically, Reading Serendipitously: Fine-Tuning for the Unheard Melodies of Dao), (［］) 42, no.3 (September 2012): 379-400.］In the following lines, especially regarding the six trisillabic sentences,

ye

could be considered as removed or omitted for the desirable narrative rhythm from where it might also be added if necessary for a different rhythmic impact

其次致曲。曲能有誠，誠則形，形則著，著則明，明則動，動則變，變則化。唯天下至誠為能化。

Next one cultivates these processes and events with discretion so that each aspect of them is able to realize its own creativity (

cheng

誠).When there is creativity there is something that determinates； when there is something that determinates, it is manifest； when it is manifest, there is understanding； when there is understanding, others are affected； when other are affected, they change； when they change, they are transformed.And only those of utmost creativity (

zhicheng

至誠) in the world are able to effect transformation.

Ye

could therefore apparently impact the rhythmic flow of the text through its controlled presence or absence.This is why

Kongzi jiayu

《孔子家語》(The School Sayings of Confucius), as Zhu argues, is not an elegantly plagiarized version of

Liji

《禮記》(The Book of Rites).The plagiarized sentence “仲子亦猶行古人之道” (Zhongzi is still following the ancient way), emphasizes Zhu, is not as elegant as the original

Liji tangong

《禮記·檀弓》(Tan Gong·The Book of Rites), “仲子亦猶行古之道也” due to its inadequate omission of the seemingly insignificant particle

ye

but necessary at the end for a soft landing of the sentence with or without any emphatic implication. 朱光潛：《朱光潛美學(xué)文集》第1—2冊，上海：上海文藝出版社，1982年，第302頁。 ［ZHU Guangqian, (Collected Aesthetics Essays of Zhu Guangqian), vol.1 and vol.2, Shanghai: Shanghai Literature and Art Press, 1982, 302.］ Indicated by the above cases, such as “修身也, 尊賢也，親親也，敬大臣也，體群臣也。子庶民也，來百工也，柔遠人也，懷諸侯也,” to flow with the overall flow regarding the rest of the text,

ye

apparently is often added for the effect of a pause, suspension, moment for adjusting narrative pace or rhythm in ways reminiscent of a “speed bump” to signal how it is only part of introduction for the important yet to come, to slow down the movement of the text in a measured pace or motion for thoughtful reflection.For the purpose, the text may need the seemingly insignificant particles, such as

ye

, for the necessary adjustment of narrative rhythm with nothing to be rushed but delivered step by step through constantly reset structural rhythm with thoughtfully sustained parallelism.Meanwhile, the special effect of parallelism is apparently further intensified by the repetitive use of

ye

-facilitated patterns, be the particle

ye

immediately present or absent, as is the case with “...則 ...,” equivalent “if ...[then] ...” and “...所以 ...也” equivalent of Ames and Hall’s version “...is the way ...” or “...this is why ...” Similarly, whether, when, where, or how

ye

needs to be present or absent is truly a “trivial” matter of crucial significance.In the last paragraph as above, one of the major

ye-

facilitated patterns “...所以 ...也 ...” is, for instance, effectively preceded with two quadrisyllabic statements “齊明盛服，非禮不動, 所以修身也” (Fasting, purifying oneself, putting one’s finest clothes and not making a move that violates ritual propriety is the way to cultivate one’s person).Even if

ye

could also added to the two preceding quadrisyllabic sentences as “齊明盛服也，非禮不動也,” the addition, however, would create five awkwardly flat-paced pentasyllabic sentences and would thus cause the line to lose its crispy rhythm or natural sounding for a factual statement with a nonchalant or pure matter-of-fact tone.With

ye

remaining only for the last sentence of the line “所以修身也,” the same line immediately goes back to life with a vivaciously rhythmic pattern alternated by the equally natural-sounding quadrisyllabic and pentasyllabic sentences.Likewise, for maintaining a live meaning-enriching rhythm or, in Wittgenstein’s words, a subtle and yet vital word-accompanying “sense” or “atmosphere,” the additional conjunction of

er

而 is also inserted to the next sentence of the same verbal structure, i.e., “去讒遠色，賤貨而貴德，所以勸賢也” (diminishing flatterers and distancing enticing faces, making light of riches and honoring excellence).With this additional conjunction, it is clear how the parallelism of this paragraph as of the entire chapter is literally enlivened further with a subtly rhythmic variety by making an odd or uneven phrase of the otherwise perfect parallelism built on sentences with exactly one-to-one syllabic matching.The addition of the conjunction could still be in a way optional considering how with its omission the same line could keep not only its meaning intact but also a verbal pattern that matches perfectly with the preceding one in terms of syllabic counting. The scenario could also be understood regarding the addition of 吾 (I) of the last line in the hexagram of 《易經(jīng)》(The Book of Changes).While this simple addition seems to disrupt an otherwise perfect metric pattern with perfect syllabic matching line by line, it however makes the regular hexagram serendipitously a poem.
鳴鶴在陰，There is a crane calling on the shady northern slope
其子和之。Its offering answers it
我有好爵，We have a fine beaker (of wine)
吾與爾靡之。I will empty it together with you (Kunst 53)
For details, see Chapter 6 especially the beginning section “: THE CASES OF 吾 , 與 , 爾 , AND 之 ” of Shudong Chen’s (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018).The result, however, could be ironically much of a forced Procrustean type of harmony or “cutting the feet to fit the shoes” (

xuezu shilü

削足適履) as in Chinese with mere artificial syllabic martching.Even if still with the motif-setting and

ye

-facilitated verbal pattern, the next line, however, adds rhythmically further for life-enlivening variety to the paragraph and the overall text by simply going back to the usual pattern that the chapter builds itself upon from the beginning, that is, the line with two trisyllabic sentences, one quadrisyllabic sentence, and one hexasyllabic sentence with an emphatic

ye

to conclude the line, i.e., “尊其位，重其祿，同其好惡，所以勸親親也” (esteeming their status, being generous with emoluments, and sharing their likes and dislikes is the way to encourage kinship among kin).Therefore, in the text of

Zhongyong

, whether

ye

is added when it must be or omitted when it could be kept, all depends on the actual context.Still,

ye

also reveals its power or subtle influences in making a coherent text with adjustable meaning-enlivening variety that accompanies every line of the text as the indispensable “atmosphere.” All however depends upon whether, when, where, how, and under what circumstances

ye

must be present, absent, or absent but still exerting its ever-present influences through its absence or its participatory absence, like an absentee ballot that tilts the outcome of an election. The particular flexibility or adaptability with the actual verbal context that reveals in the text of is quite contextual by nature, which could go simultaneously along with and against, and even beyond any possible dictionary definition in ways as the unique “word-accompanying sense” or “atmosphere” understandable only from within the live context.Theword could then also be the appropriate taleteller of the character of Chinese language, which, as Ames and Hall rightly observe, is “not logocentric” and its “words do not name essences” especially in the “rather dramatic contrast between Chinese and Western language” (15).It is because with Western language especially in the mainstream philosophical discourse, “l(fā)ogical and semantic clarity are among the most celebrated of the ideals of Reason,” whereas “allusive, and connotatively rich language is more highly prized than clarity, precision, and argumentative rigor” (15).This particular contextually conditioned or motivated flexibility and adaptability of could therefore be further understood in terms of the practical and flexible strategy that Ames and Hall adopt in translating the pivotal concepts of 中庸 and 誠.As the term “中found in locution z 中庸,” it is “sometimes translated ［as］ ‘focus’ or ‘focusing’ and sometimes ［as］ ‘equilibrium,’ etc.［］誠 also carries the associations of ‘sincerity’ and ‘integrity,’ as well as the sense［they］ have foregrounded as most central to the text—namely, ‘creativity.’” This contextually motivated and almost self-consummating flexibility of Chinese language is what helps revealing along with the key words and The scenarios could undoubtedly be as variable as the phrase of 江湖 in translation.The phrase 江湖could be simply translated as literally as the “vast world of rivers and lakes,” “underground secret society,” “wild and unruly world of outlaws and gangsters,” “free and common life at large of ordinary people,” or “free and open world of humanity and nature” as in both “Da zongshi” 大宗師 (The Grand Master) of the Inner Chapters and “Tian yun” 天運 (The Way of Nature) of the Outer Chapters of the , i.e., “相濡以沫，不如相忘于江湖” (instead of hanging hopelessly on the feeble support from one another on the verge of death, it is better to forget one another to return happily to one’s respective world of wild nature amidst the vast rivers and lakes).Contingent upon the actual context, all these translations of 江湖 are possible.This case of

ye

, along with

er

, exemplifies the effective meaning-enlivening use of function words in the classical texts, such as

Zhongyong

, and it could be further understood in terms of the well-known anecdote regarding the first two lines of Ouyang Xiu’s 歐陽修 (1007-1072) “Zhoujin Tang ji”《晝錦堂記》(On Zhou Jin Hall): “仕宦至將相, 錦衣歸故鄉(xiāng)” (Ascending high to the office of supreme responsibility, [and] returning home happy with honors and glory).After he already sent away the manuscript, the famous essayist suddenly realized that he needed to add

er

(and / or / but) to the first two lines to make them sound better.He then immediately dispatched his aide on horseback to catch and get back the manuscript, which was already on the way for a long while.With

er

added, the meaning of the revised version 仕宦而至將相, 錦衣而歸故鄉(xiāng) may not seem to have changed much, but they sound better.At least, for Zhu Guangqian 朱光潛 (1897-1986), without the added

er

, the original ones sound rushed and abrupt (

jucu

局促)； with the added

er

, they sound relaxed (

shuzhan

舒展).The two lines then sound further rhythmic (

yiyang duncuo

抑揚頓挫) with an additional layer of meaning due to an added function word for a facilitated transition.While scholars, such as Zhu, all consider that the current version sounds much better than the original one, no one, however, specifies why it is so.The reason, from a contemporary prosodic point of view, however, is of an otherwise impossible subtle but crucial pause that occurs with the added

er

, which, like a timely “speed bump,” slows down the pace, gives the indispensable rhythm to an otherwise rather flat and straightforward pace of reading, and thus improves the expression of the meaning by bringing out its full flavor with the well measured rhythms.This is exactly “meaning and sound,” argues Zhu, “[which] cannot be arbitrarily separated [because], improved sound effect means automatically the improved expression of meaning.” Clearly, as Zhu emphasizes, the difficult part of classical writing is the use of “function words,” even though the most important exceed no more than these types of usage, that is, expression of transition and connection, positive and negative exclamation, and questioning.These are the function words that mark the basic sentiments when one speaks.This explains why classical writings, which are so particular about sounding, pay special attention to function words. 朱光潛：《朱光潛美學(xué)文集》，第302頁。 ［ZHU Guangqian, (Collected Aesthetics Essays of Zhu Guangqian), 302.］

6.Conclusion: Never Lose Sight of Focus on Anything too Trivially Familiar

If

Dao

, as Zhuangzi emphasizes, is everywhere even in the least noticeable and unthinkable places, such as “the shit and piss” (

dao zai shini

道在屎溺), the modal particle

ye

should therefore indicate or simply be one of these least noticeable and yet most crucial spots for us to catch

Dao

afresh in the texts whether it be defined as

qi

氣 (spirit) in terms of

Tongcheng pai

’s 桐城派 (The Tongcheng School) “

yin sheng qiu qi

” 因聲求氣 (understanding spirit through sound) or as

yi

義 (meaning) according to Lu Zongda’s 陸宗達 (1905-1988) “

yin sheng qiu yi

” 因聲求義 (understanding meaning through sound).Either way, we must first go with the least noticeable but most crucial prosodically, that is, the modal particle

ye

, which is so indispensable with its

qi

making or meaning-making sound (

sheng

聲) inherent in its text-enlivening power.As usual, does not the most important, such as air, remain the least noticeable? Does not the particle

ye

in the context often resemble the irreplaceable but “invisible” air in so many subtle but crucial ways, which also explain why the role of function words for William James is so vital with his philosophy of “radical empiricism”? As Liu Dakui of Qing emphasizes the text-enlivening power of function words of Confucius times, James considers function words representing the “primordial elements of ‘fact,’ [which...] flow out of the stream of pure experience” or “the simultaneous feeling.” James wants to preserve such a natural flow of experiences by means of treating all “function words” as important as “content words,” such as “‘then,’ ‘before,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ ‘beside,’ ‘between,’ ‘next,’ ‘like,’ ‘unlike,’ ‘a(chǎn)s,’ ‘but.’” William James, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 95.This is why many

ye

-mediated or enlivened “sound patterns in sentences” could not only prove so “integral,” if not “more [so..., than] the syntax.” For the observation in Chinese “語音規(guī)則比句法更基本” and in English “The sound pattern in sentences is more integral to the syntax,” see 馮勝利：《漢語韻律語法問答》，北京：北京語言大學(xué)出版社，2016年，第270頁。［FENG Shengli, (Q & A: A Prosodic Grammar of Chinese), Beijing: The Beijing Language and Culture University Press, 2016, 270.］Thus, to read

Zhongyong

, as Wittgenstein himself would emphasize here, could precisely mean “to understand a sentence,” which could also mean “to understand a language,” whereas “to understand a language means to be master of a technique” so instrumental for us to catch the meanings that always remain alive not only with the content words but also with the functions words, such as

ye

. Ludwig Wittgenstein, , 3rd ed., trans.G.E.M.Anscombe (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 199, 81e.Specifically, neither would ever be possible without the decisive influences so serendipitously from two otherwise utterly discrete sources, that is to say, the argument and the analytical approach of the paper and the projects, one of which is completed and published as Lexington Books, 2018), the other being the currently ongoing follow-up project of the former with the paper as part of the sixth chapter.Philosophically, the current paper benefits from Wittgenstein’s analytical rigor and skepticism towards often inadequately overstated power of scientific and religious viewpoints as he thus point-blankly states that “people today stop at the laws of nature, treating them as something inviolable, just as God and Fate were treated in past ages.And in fact both are right and both wrong: though the view of the ancients is clearer in so far as they have a clear and acknowledged terminus, while the modern system tries to make it look as if ” (no.6: 372).The paper particularly benefits from Wittgenstein towards the “tyranny of language,” especially with such comments of his as on Newtonian mechanics used as illuminating analogy.It is because “the possibility of describing the world by means of Newtonian mechanics,” as Wittgenstein sees it, “tells us nothing about the world； but what does tell us something about it is the precise way in which it is possible to describe it by these means” or “the fact that it can be described more simply with one system of mechanics than with another.” Therefore, “mechanics,” for Wittgenstein, is only “an attempt to construct according to a single plan all the true propositions that we need for the description of the world,” even though “the laws of physics, with all their logical apparatus, still speak, however indirectly, about the objects of the world” (Ibid., 139).Therefore, anything, however as rigorous or as “scientific” as Newtonian mechanics is, would ultimately appear as nothing more than a mere matter of choice for an “optional” or “simpler” plan； whatever happens to be thus chosen consequently is not just about the reality itself but rather also about our mental picture of reality that often resembles, as Wittgenstein would likely so emphasize here, a picture that pictures a picture of reality, the way we choose to see it—the way of an opaque mirror that reflects not only an ambiguous image of reality with variable options to see it but also our actual capacity and motivation to see or to perceive it.However influential as his awe-striking intellect is, what often appears most appealing about Wittgenstein is his acute, no-nonsense, and even often quite powerfully “commonsensical” observations for those who often read him.Indeed, in addition to his right-to-the-point reference to mastering a language as mastering a technique, what also proves decisive on me is Wittgenstein’s insistence that “we examine actual language” with no other option but just bring ourselves “［b］ack to the rough ground ［of actual language］” for the indispensable “friction,” as in this case, with the essential but often , 107.46c).But how to do so to put it into practice such philosophical insights? Methodologically, Feng Shengli’s specific prosodic approach to the issue and live texts finally fills the gap.I thank the anonymous reviewer for the opportunity of clarifying the crucial sources of influences.

國際比較文學(xué)(中英文)2019年3期

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