馬雪飛,于 燁(上海交通大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院藥理與化學(xué)生物學(xué)系,上海 200025)
ATP一直被認(rèn)為是一種細(xì)胞內(nèi)能源物質(zhì)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),ATP也可作為一個(gè)重要的細(xì)胞外信號(hào)分子[1]。ATP下游信號(hào)主要通過激活嘌呤受體傳導(dǎo),嘌呤受體分為P1和P2兩大類。其中,P1是G蛋白偶聯(lián)受體,P2受體包含P2X離子通道和P2Y G蛋白偶聯(lián)受體[2]。P2X受體是一種非選擇性陽離子通道,有7個(gè)亞型(P2X1~P2X7),允許Na+,K+和Ca2+等陽離子通過。其結(jié)構(gòu)由同源或異源的3個(gè)亞基組成三聚體[3]。
P2X受體在體內(nèi)廣泛表達(dá),往往都是較低水平的表達(dá)。另外,在腦和脊髓中,未觀測(cè)到內(nèi)源性ATP釋放引起動(dòng)作電位發(fā)放。目前已建立起多個(gè)P2X敲除小鼠,但在相關(guān)報(bào)道中均未發(fā)現(xiàn)明顯的中樞神經(jīng)相關(guān)的表型。這些現(xiàn)象一方面表明,ATP可能主要是通過激活突觸前P2X受體充當(dāng)神經(jīng)調(diào)節(jié)物質(zhì)[4];另一方面表明,P2X受體可能更多在病理情況下起重要作用。研究表明,大多數(shù)神經(jīng)元細(xì)胞和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中都能發(fā)現(xiàn)P2X4受體[5-6],在一定條件下,P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào),介導(dǎo)多種病理過程,如神經(jīng)性疼痛[7]、乙醇攝入和偏好[8]、癲癇[9]、卒中缺血或神經(jīng)退行性疾病恢復(fù)[10]和神經(jīng)炎癥[11]。P2X4受體可作為一個(gè)潛在的治療靶標(biāo),但由于P2X4受體缺少有效的選擇性抑制劑,非常不利于P2X4受體的功能研究。P2X4受體特異性抑制劑的發(fā)現(xiàn),可促進(jìn)P2X4受體生理病理功能的研究,也可為治療上述疾病提供新的藥理學(xué)方法。
P2X4最早在小鼠大腦中克隆,是第一個(gè)在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)(central nervous system,CNS)中檢測(cè)到的P2X4受體[12]。隨后在人類大腦中也克隆到P2X4[13]。在大腦皮質(zhì)神經(jīng)元中發(fā)現(xiàn)具有功能的P2X4受體,伊維霉素(ivermectin,IVM,一類P2X4受體功能增強(qiáng)劑)可增強(qiáng)ATP誘導(dǎo)的電流[14];通過激活P2X受體可誘導(dǎo)大腦皮質(zhì)快速興奮突觸后電流,影響突觸可塑性[15]。在海馬體中ATP影響突觸可塑性[16],ATP的釋放與海馬體的長(zhǎng)時(shí)程增強(qiáng)(long-term potentiation,LTP)有關(guān)[17],在海馬體神經(jīng)元中,P2X受體激活會(huì)刺激或抑制谷氨酸釋放[18]。P2X4受體在海馬體的錐體細(xì)胞層、中間神經(jīng)元以及海馬CA1,CA2和CA3錐體細(xì)胞中高水平表達(dá)[19]。相比野生型小鼠,P2X4敲除的小鼠中LTP減少,在野生型小鼠中IVM可增加LTP,但P2X4敲除小鼠中無此作用[20],說明P2X4受體在LTP時(shí)可增強(qiáng)突觸活性。在海馬體CA1區(qū)鋅離子可通過調(diào)節(jié)P2X4受體而提高LTP[21]。
P2X4受體在小腦皮質(zhì)大量表達(dá),在浦肯野細(xì)胞層和顆粒細(xì)胞層,及星狀細(xì)胞和籃狀細(xì)胞中均檢測(cè)到P2X4受體的表達(dá)[22]。P2X4受體在舌下神經(jīng)核中表達(dá),可調(diào)節(jié)舌下神經(jīng)的活性[23]。在室旁核和垂體前葉也檢測(cè)到P2X4受體的表達(dá)[24]。視上神經(jīng)元表達(dá)了有功能的突觸前和突觸外P2X4受體,可調(diào)節(jié)谷氨酸和γ-氨基丁酸(γ-aminobutyrate,GABA)的釋放[25]。在小丘腦神經(jīng)元中增加P2X4受體的表達(dá)會(huì)導(dǎo)致GABA能電流減小,P2X4受體和GABAA受體相互作用共同調(diào)節(jié)突觸信號(hào)[26]。在下丘腦弓狀核的刺鼠肽基因相關(guān)蛋白-神經(jīng)肽神經(jīng)元中高表達(dá)P2X4受體。電生理實(shí)驗(yàn)表明,P2X4受體介導(dǎo)突觸前GABA釋放到阿片-促黑素細(xì)胞皮質(zhì)素原神經(jīng)元,這些神經(jīng)元都稱為集中投射神經(jīng)元,在食欲的調(diào)節(jié)中發(fā)揮重要作用[27]。促黃體生成激素釋放激素的釋放也與P2X4受體有關(guān)[28]。
P2X4受體在軀體感覺神經(jīng)元[14]、三叉神經(jīng)元[29]、視網(wǎng)膜神經(jīng)節(jié)和雙極細(xì)胞[30]以及脊髓[31]均有表達(dá)。在脊髓膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中發(fā)現(xiàn)大量的P2X4受體,在周圍神經(jīng)損傷損傷后,P2X4的轉(zhuǎn)錄、翻譯水平均上調(diào)[6]。在脊髓中周圍神經(jīng)損傷引起的疼痛可被P2X4受體的阻斷劑反轉(zhuǎn)[7],敲除P2X4可緩解小鼠炎癥和神經(jīng)性疼痛[6]。
P2X4受體參與CNS許多生理病理過程,包括慢性痛、乙醇攝入、癲癇、阿爾茨海默?。ˋD)、帕金森?。≒D)和卒中,P2X4可作為治療神經(jīng)性疾病的一個(gè)重要潛在靶標(biāo)。
近年來,P2X4受體對(duì)慢性痛的作用受到了廣泛的關(guān)注,而之前的研究主要是針對(duì)以神經(jīng)元為中心的機(jī)制:原發(fā)性或者二級(jí)感受神經(jīng)元的改變引起的過度興奮性,越來越多的研究證明了膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞微環(huán)境的變化會(huì)引起周圍感覺神經(jīng)元的超興奮性和疼痛應(yīng)答。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),隨著周圍神經(jīng)的損傷,脊髓小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體在細(xì)胞膜上的表達(dá)量上升。而且P2X4受體抑制劑可反轉(zhuǎn)神經(jīng)損傷引起的痛覺過敏,所以提出P2X4受體可能是治療這種神經(jīng)疼痛的潛在靶標(biāo)。小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化可誘發(fā)神經(jīng)元超興奮性,這個(gè)信號(hào)通路的關(guān)鍵分子是腦源性神經(jīng)營(yíng)養(yǎng)因子(brain derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)[32],BDNF的釋放依賴ATP激活小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的P2X4受體[33]。BDNF激活脊髓背角Ⅰ層神經(jīng)元的TrkB受體,誘導(dǎo)K+/Cl-轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體下調(diào),使神經(jīng)元內(nèi)的氯離子升高,脊髓背角Ⅰ層神經(jīng)元陰離子逆轉(zhuǎn)電位(EAnion)的去極化發(fā)生改變,并減少GABAA受體和甘氨酸對(duì)興奮性的抑制,從而產(chǎn)生疼痛[32]。所以,在小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞中,P2X4受體異常表達(dá)促成了周圍神經(jīng)損傷誘導(dǎo)的神經(jīng)疼痛,因此P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào)也成為研究對(duì)象。其中干擾素調(diào)節(jié)因子5(interferon regulatory factor-5,IRF-5)是參與P2X4受體轉(zhuǎn)錄調(diào)控的轉(zhuǎn)錄因子,缺少IRF-5的小鼠在周圍神經(jīng)損傷后,脊髓中P2X4受體表達(dá)未上調(diào),也未表現(xiàn)出對(duì)疼痛異常敏感[34]。
Src家族激酶Lyn對(duì)神經(jīng)疼痛也具有重要作用。Lyn參與小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化,在神經(jīng)損傷后,Lyn表達(dá)水平顯著上升,而在Lyn敲除小鼠隨著神經(jīng)損傷并未出現(xiàn)P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào)和異常性疼痛[35]。Lyn可激活PI3K-Akt引起P2X4受體表達(dá)增加,所以,Lyn可能是調(diào)節(jié)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體上調(diào)的關(guān)鍵激酶[36]。趨化因子CCL21也參與增加P2X4受體的表達(dá),缺少CCL21可防止脊髓背角小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體的過表達(dá),而使用CCL21可使小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào)[37]。
神經(jīng)損傷后誘發(fā)神經(jīng)疼痛的機(jī)制存在性別差異,在雄性小鼠中小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào)并伴隨著P38絲分裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogenactivated protein kinase,MAPK)激活和BDNF的釋放,而在雄性小鼠中未出現(xiàn)P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào),阻斷通路中的任何一步都不能有效治愈疼痛[38]。因此,上述疼痛機(jī)制不適用在雄性小鼠。
最近發(fā)現(xiàn),P2X4受體與嗎啡耐受[39]和嗎啡誘導(dǎo)的痛覺過敏[40]有關(guān)。嗎啡誘導(dǎo)的痛覺過敏也需要阿片受體介導(dǎo)的脊髓小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體的上調(diào)[40]。由此說明,P2X4受體在疼痛通路中的重要作用。
乙醇使用障礙已成為比較嚴(yán)重的健康問題,針對(duì)乙醇使用障礙的藥物開發(fā)是一個(gè)相對(duì)年輕的領(lǐng)域。目前被美國(guó)FDA批準(zhǔn)的藥物有雙硫侖、環(huán)丙甲羥二羥嗎啡酮和阿坎酸[41-42]。但這些還遠(yuǎn)不夠,因此,關(guān)于開發(fā)有效的治療乙醇使用障礙的藥物的研究越來越多。體外研究發(fā)現(xiàn),乙醇可特異性地抑制P2X4受體電流[43],而不抑制其他P2X4受體的功能。進(jìn)一步研究表明,乙醇抑制P2X4受體是由于降低了ATP對(duì)P2X4受體的親和力[44],乙醇會(huì)阻止P2X4受體開放狀態(tài),但不影響受體失活。乙醇作用P2X4受體的關(guān)鍵位點(diǎn)Trp46,His241,Asp331和 Met336[45-46]也被發(fā)現(xiàn)。
研究表明,P2X4受體在特定的腦區(qū)表達(dá)水平較高,這些腦區(qū)都參與增強(qiáng)乙醇和其他藥物的性能[47]。一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn),P2X4受體在乙醇誘導(dǎo)的行為中起作用,P2X4受體在維持多巴胺體內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)中起重要作用,因此參與飲酒行為[48]。P2X4受體表達(dá)水平與乙醇攝入相關(guān),偏好乙醇的小鼠P2X4表達(dá)水平低于不喜乙醇的小鼠[49]。因此,乙醇攝入存在遺傳傾向,突出了在治療乙醇使用障礙的藥物開發(fā)中遺傳異質(zhì)性的重要意義。P2X4受體敲除小鼠的乙醇攝入量明顯高于野生型小鼠[50]。相比野生型小鼠,敲除P2x4受體小鼠表現(xiàn)出不同的乙醇攝入、乙醇的鎮(zhèn)定催眠作用,小腦GABAA受體表達(dá)升高[51]。P2X4受體參與調(diào)節(jié)GABA的神經(jīng)傳遞,意味著P2X4受體參與調(diào)節(jié)GABA介導(dǎo)的乙醇攝入調(diào)節(jié)。IVM可抑制乙醇對(duì)P2X4受體的作用,是因?yàn)楦蓴_了乙醇在P2X4受體的結(jié)合位點(diǎn)[52]。IVM可能通過P2X4受體影響一些神經(jīng)信號(hào)系統(tǒng),例如GABA、谷氨酸和多巴胺,都參與乙醇攝入。因此,IVM可充當(dāng)研究P2X4在乙醇攝入中功能的藥理學(xué)工具。
前期臨床證明,IVM可減少乙醇消耗,但作用有限[53]。IVM在大腦中無法達(dá)到較高的濃度,所以需要開發(fā)新的化合物,既可增強(qiáng)IVM在CNS中的滯留能力,還要保持減少乙醇攝入的能力和安全性。隨后發(fā)現(xiàn)的兩種IVM相關(guān)的大環(huán)內(nèi)脂阿維菌素(abamectin)和司拉克丁(selamectin),它們可穿過血腦屏障,減少乙醇攝入,改變GABAA受體的調(diào)節(jié)以及P2X4受體表達(dá),相比IVM在大腦中濃度較高[54]。莫西菌素(moxidectin)具有作為乙醇使用障礙的新型藥物治療的潛力[55]。在中腦邊緣系統(tǒng)中,P2X4受體調(diào)節(jié)多巴胺能神經(jīng)傳遞,在中腦邊緣系統(tǒng)的多巴胺能神經(jīng)元中,P2X4受體在飲酒行為中具有重要作用,P2X4受體活性與其他多巴胺能神經(jīng)傳遞相關(guān)的行為也有關(guān)[48]。
在大腦和脊髓中發(fā)生的炎癥響應(yīng)一般稱為神經(jīng)性炎癥,小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是CNS的先天性免疫細(xì)胞,在介導(dǎo)神經(jīng)炎癥響應(yīng)中起關(guān)鍵作用[56]。神經(jīng)炎癥反應(yīng)需要一些關(guān)鍵因子,包括促炎癥細(xì)胞因子(IL-1β,IL-6和TNF-α)、趨化因子(CCL2,CCL5和CXCL1)和第二信使(一氧化氮和前列腺素),這些都由激活CNS中小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞而產(chǎn)生[56]。
在脊髓損傷、外傷性腦損傷和腦缺血后受傷組織的P2X4受體表達(dá)增加。炎性體是多蛋白復(fù)合體,可促進(jìn)炎癥細(xì)胞因子成熟,如IL-1β,可能參與調(diào)控神經(jīng)炎癥過程。使用P2X4敲除小鼠檢測(cè)脊髓損傷后P2X4受體對(duì)炎性體激活和神經(jīng)炎癥的作用,發(fā)現(xiàn)P2X4敲除小鼠在脊髓損傷后炎性體激活,促炎癥細(xì)胞因子和炎癥細(xì)胞浸潤(rùn)均顯著減少。因此,P2X4受體在神經(jīng)元介導(dǎo)的先天性神經(jīng)炎癥中起重要作用[57]。在P2X4敲除小鼠中,癲癇發(fā)作后神經(jīng)損傷和炎癥發(fā)生改變,P2X受體家族成員可能在癲癇的病理生理學(xué)中發(fā)揮重要作用,為癲癇發(fā)作控制和神經(jīng)保護(hù)提供新的靶點(diǎn)[58]。將P2X4敲除小鼠誘導(dǎo)成持續(xù)癲癇狀態(tài),48 h后小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化的部分功能被損害,如細(xì)胞招募、電壓依賴鉀通道上調(diào)[9]。
神經(jīng)退行性疾病,如AD和PD也與神經(jīng)炎癥相關(guān)[59],其中小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)起到重要作用[60-61]。P2X4受體參與調(diào)節(jié)小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的信號(hào)通路,因此證明P2X4受體在各類與小膠質(zhì)炎癥相關(guān)的疾病中具有重要作用。在多發(fā)性硬化動(dòng)物模型中小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào)[62],在脂多糖誘導(dǎo)的神經(jīng)炎癥中,用P2X4抑制劑可減少小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的活性。急性缺血損傷導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重神經(jīng)元損傷的關(guān)鍵機(jī)制是炎癥。急性缺血導(dǎo)致死亡神經(jīng)元和非神經(jīng)元釋放過量的ATP,激活P2X4受體,P2X4受體在CNS高表達(dá),尤其是在脊髓中,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是CNS中的免疫細(xì)胞,響應(yīng)腦功能破壞,如缺血性卒中,卒中后小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞形態(tài)發(fā)生變化,產(chǎn)生炎癥因子IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α[63-64],這些變化都伴隨著小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化和P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào),P2X4敲除小鼠在脊髓損傷[57]和過敏原誘導(dǎo)的呼吸道炎癥[65]后,炎性體信號(hào)減少,在這些損傷模型中,P2X4陽性受體白細(xì)胞是釋放促炎癥細(xì)胞因子主要來源。這些結(jié)果表明,P2X4受體陽性小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞也是促炎癥細(xì)胞因子的重要來源。因此,P2X4受體參與神經(jīng)性炎癥主要是通過P2X4受體調(diào)節(jié)小神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的信號(hào)通路。
由于缺少特異性P2X4受體抑制劑,P2X4受體研究受到阻礙,之前的研究都用非選擇性P2X4受體抑制劑(TNP-ATP和BBG)研究P2X4受體,但它們對(duì)P2X4親和力小,效果不明顯。隨著研究發(fā)現(xiàn),P2X4受體越來越重要,針對(duì)P2X4受體特異性抑制劑的研究也越來越受到關(guān)注,其發(fā)現(xiàn)可為針對(duì)P2X4受體治療提供新途徑。遺憾的是這些化合物與P2X4受體的作用機(jī)制并不清楚。根據(jù)已經(jīng)解析的斑馬魚P2X4受體(zfP2X4)晶體結(jié)構(gòu),結(jié)合其他手段發(fā)現(xiàn)P2X4受體特異性抑制劑的作用位點(diǎn),可為這些化合物的改造提供分子水平基礎(chǔ)。
5-BDBD是第一個(gè)被發(fā)現(xiàn)的有效的P2X4受體特異性抑制劑,在HEK-293細(xì)胞表達(dá)人源P2X4(hP2X4)受體IC50值為1.2 μmol·L-1,2種不同濃度的5-BDBD導(dǎo)致ATP濃度依賴曲線右移,說明5-BDBD是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)抑制劑[66]。但后來也有研究表明,5-BDBD并非競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性抑制劑,而是變構(gòu)調(diào)節(jié)劑[67],在應(yīng)用方面,敲除P2X4或使用5-BDBD可以緩解小鼠呼吸道炎癥,表明5-BDBD在臨床上有潛在應(yīng)用價(jià)值。
最近發(fā)現(xiàn)的一個(gè)P2X4受體抑制劑BX430,IC50值為0.54 μmol·L-1,相比其他P2X受體具有高選擇性,是非競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性變構(gòu)調(diào)節(jié)劑。BX430對(duì)P2X4受體的抑制作用具有種屬特異性,目前發(fā)現(xiàn)它可抑制hP2X4和zfP2X4,但只能較弱抑制小鼠源和大鼠源P2X4受體的功能[68]。
PSB-12054是一個(gè)強(qiáng)效的hP2X4受體抑制劑,IC50值為0.189 μmol·L-1,在小鼠和大鼠的效果稍低一些,相比其他P2X受體,也同樣具有高的選擇性。其類似物PSB-12062效率相比之前的低,但在人、小鼠和大鼠3個(gè)種屬抑制效率相似[69]。
NP-1815-PX是一個(gè)新的P2X4抑制劑,在人源P2X4 上,IC50值為 0.26 μmol·L-1,對(duì)小鼠源和大鼠源也同樣具有抑制作用。相比其他P2X受體,它對(duì)P2X4具有高選擇性。在慢性痛模型中,NP-1815-PX可緩解神經(jīng)損傷相關(guān)的疼痛[70]。
大量研究表明,P2X4受體在CNS中的重要作用(圖1)。當(dāng)周圍神經(jīng)損傷、脊髓損傷、外傷性腦損傷以及腦缺血時(shí),引起P2X4受體表達(dá)上調(diào),通過相關(guān)的信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)最終導(dǎo)致慢性痛、神經(jīng)炎癥、乙醇使用障礙和多發(fā)性硬化等疾患。因此,P2X4受體可作為潛在的藥物靶點(diǎn)在這些疾病中發(fā)揮作用。隨著P2X4受體晶體結(jié)構(gòu)的相繼解析,對(duì)P2X4受體結(jié)構(gòu)有了更深入的研究,為研究P2X4受體與抑制劑和增強(qiáng)劑的結(jié)合機(jī)制提供了結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)。多個(gè)內(nèi)源性或外源性的物質(zhì)或者藥物分子都可以調(diào)節(jié)P2X4受體的功能。新型P2X4受體特異性抑制劑或者增強(qiáng)劑的發(fā)現(xiàn),有助于研究P2X4受體在疾病中的作用,為治療相關(guān)疾病提供新的潛在藥物。
圖1 P2X4受體在中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中的重要作用及目前已知的靶向P2X4受體的抑制劑.
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