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      間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬中的應(yīng)用研究綜述

      2017-09-04 02:29:07呂宏強陳建偉秦望龍南京航空航天大學(xué)航空宇航學(xué)院江蘇南京210016
      空氣動力學(xué)學(xué)報 2017年4期
      關(guān)鍵詞:遼金高精度高階

      呂宏強, 張 濤, 孫 強, 陳建偉, 秦望龍(南京航空航天大學(xué) 航空宇航學(xué)院, 江蘇 南京 210016)

      間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬中的應(yīng)用研究綜述

      呂宏強*, 張 濤, 孫 強, 陳建偉, 秦望龍
      (南京航空航天大學(xué) 航空宇航學(xué)院, 江蘇 南京 210016)

      本文對近三十年來,國內(nèi)外對于高精度數(shù)值方法研究中的熱點——間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬方面的應(yīng)用研究進行了綜述。首先對間斷伽遼金方法的基本概念和特點作了簡單介紹,然后對應(yīng)用該方法解決雙曲型及橢圓型問題的發(fā)展歷程進行了回顧,并重點梳理了其在計算流體力學(xué)領(lǐng)域可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬方面的應(yīng)用發(fā)展以及研究現(xiàn)狀,之后對該方法在對應(yīng)的網(wǎng)格技術(shù)、激波捕捉方法、湍流流動模擬以及計算量需求方面目前仍然存在的研究難點和可能的發(fā)展趨勢做出了總結(jié)和分析。最后給出了間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬中的若干應(yīng)用實例。

      間斷伽遼金方法;高精度方法;計算流體力學(xué);可壓縮流;彎曲網(wǎng)格

      0 引 言

      近些年來,高精度數(shù)值方法的研究成為計算流體力學(xué)(Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFD) 領(lǐng)域研究中的前沿?zé)狳c問題之一。我們通常所說的高精度方法是指空間精度為三階或三階以上的高精度數(shù)值格式,相比于傳統(tǒng)的空間二階精度的有限體積格式,高精度方法具有空間精度高,數(shù)值分辨率高,數(shù)值耗散小的優(yōu)點。

      目前計算流體力學(xué)領(lǐng)域高精度方法主要可以分為三大類:高精度有限差分(Finite Difference, FD)方法[1-3],高精度有限體積(Finite Volume, FV)方法[4-9]和高精度有限元類 (Finite Element, FE)方法[10-17]。高精度有限差分法,通常為在結(jié)構(gòu)化網(wǎng)格下一種高效而易于實施的高精度格式,由于其計算量小,且易于達到較高數(shù)值精度的特點,常用于簡單幾何區(qū)域的復(fù)雜流動直接數(shù)值模擬。這一類型的高精度格式一般只能用于結(jié)構(gòu)化的笛卡爾網(wǎng)格,對于處理復(fù)雜幾何區(qū)域則會帶來一定的困難,但近年來鄧小剛等[18]做了大量的工作將該方法推廣到復(fù)雜幾何網(wǎng)格上;高精度有限體積法是通過選取目標單元及其周圍的相鄰單元作為模板,構(gòu)造滿足一定條件的重構(gòu)高階多項式來達到高階精度的目的,比較有代表性的高精度有限體積格式有:有限體積型加權(quán)本質(zhì)無振蕩格式[4-5]、高精度k-exact有限體積格式[6]和近年來的緊致高階精度有限體積法[7-9]。這類方法理論上可以處理任意網(wǎng)格和較為復(fù)雜的幾何區(qū)域,能夠保證格式的守恒性且具有良好的數(shù)值穩(wěn)定性。然而傳統(tǒng)的高精度有限體積法的不足之處在于其模板的非緊致性,即模板不僅包含目標單元及其有公共邊的鄰居單元,通常還需要包含其鄰居單元的相鄰單元。因此,該方法在處理邊界和三維問題方面則存在一定困難。緊致高階精度有限體積法克服了這一問題,不過需要采用隱式方法求解重構(gòu)方程。第三種高精度方法以間斷伽遼金方法(Discontinuous Galerkin Method,DGM)為代表,通過提高相應(yīng)單元上的解函數(shù)多項式的次數(shù),增加相應(yīng)單元上解函數(shù)的自由度(Degree of Freedom, DoF)來提高空間精度,這類方法中其他有代表性的方法還包括:譜體積方法(Spectral Volume, SV)[11-12],譜差分方法(Spectral Difference, SD)[13-15],通量重構(gòu)方法(Flux Reconstruction, FR)[16]和修正過程重構(gòu)方法(Correction Procedure via Reconstruction, CPR)[17]。間斷伽遼金方法具有易于處理任意網(wǎng)格和復(fù)雜幾何區(qū)域的能力,且易于實現(xiàn)高階精度,格式構(gòu)造的緊致性導(dǎo)致這類方法更適合做大規(guī)模的并行和自適應(yīng)計算。正因為這些優(yōu)勢,使得間斷伽遼金方法得到了計算流體力學(xué)、計算電磁學(xué)領(lǐng)域等諸多學(xué)者的廣泛關(guān)注,成為高精度格式研究的熱點之一。 本文將對間斷伽遼金方法的基本思想和理論發(fā)展歷程做出概述,并重點介紹在可壓縮流CFD領(lǐng)域國內(nèi)外對該方法的發(fā)展以及研究現(xiàn)狀。本文也將給出部分將該方法應(yīng)用于CFD領(lǐng)域的實例。最后,對間斷伽遼金方法中仍然存在的問題和可能的發(fā)展空間做出分析和展望。

      1 間斷伽遼金方法基本概念

      高精度間斷伽遼金方法是有限元方法的一種,該方法的基本思路,是利用分段連續(xù)的多項式空間來近似表達偏微分方程組的解。以一個典型的一階雙曲守恒型方程系統(tǒng)為例:

      將計算域劃分為互不重疊的單元集合Ωv=∪kΩvk,定義Φh,p是單元Ωvk上直到p階的多項式函數(shù)張成的函數(shù)空間,p≥0且為整數(shù),設(shè)單元內(nèi)守恒變量的近似Uh∈Φh,p。在每個單元內(nèi),對方程兩邊同時乘以測試函數(shù)φh,在計算域內(nèi)積分,進行分部積分整理后,得到原方程(1)的弱解形式為:

      式(2)中,對于邊界通量H=F(Uh)·n,與有限體積方法中的處理方法類似,可以采用一個相容的數(shù)值通量來代替,而在邊界上對守恒變量不做連續(xù)性要求。如此便得到了p階間斷伽遼金方法的離散格式。

      因此間斷伽遼金方法結(jié)合了有限元方法和有限體積方法的優(yōu)點:在單元內(nèi)部同傳統(tǒng)的連續(xù)有限元方法一樣,使用多項式逼近來獲得高階精度;在單元邊界上借鑒有限體積法,通過解決Riemann問題來實現(xiàn)逆風(fēng)格式。實際上,當(dāng)p=0時,間斷伽遼金方法即退化為傳統(tǒng)的有限體積方法。

      除高精度外,間斷伽遼金方法還有很多其他吸引人的特點:

      1) 能夠保持單元平均值意義下守恒性,最重要的是具有良好的穩(wěn)定性和收斂性[19];

      2) 通過改變插值多項式的階數(shù),很容易延拓到高階(p>2),并且允許不同的單元采用不同的階數(shù),即p-adaptivity[20];

      3) 能夠處理復(fù)雜的幾何外形和物理邊界條件,甚至可以直接處理含有懸掛點的網(wǎng)格[21-22],因此極易實現(xiàn)網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng),即h-adaptivity[20-23]。另外方法本身適用于各種類型的網(wǎng)格;

      4) 利用該方法進行計算時,具有緊致性,單元只與相鄰單元有數(shù)據(jù)交換,很容易實現(xiàn)大規(guī)模并行計算且并行效率很高;

      因此,高精度間斷伽遼金方法在計算流體力學(xué)領(lǐng)域得到廣泛的嘗試。

      2 間斷伽遼金方法的歷史和現(xiàn)狀

      2.1 國際發(fā)展與現(xiàn)狀

      在應(yīng)用間斷伽遼金方法處理雙曲型方程的研究理論方面,1973年,Reed和Hill[10]在關(guān)于求解中子輸運方程(時間無關(guān)的線性雙曲型方程)問題的論文中首次在間斷伽遼金方法中引入了逆風(fēng)格式。1982年,Chavent和Salzano[24]首先在間斷伽遼金方法中引入Godunov數(shù)值通量求解了非線性雙曲型問題,將間斷伽遼金方法從求解線性問題延伸到求解非線性雙曲型問題。在20世紀末,Cockburn和Shu等[25-30]對用間斷伽遼金方法和顯式時間積分方法求解非線性雙曲型問題的研究取得了重大突破,成功地建立了著名的龍格-庫塔間斷伽遼金(RKDG)方法。最初始的RKDG有限元方法采用Shu和Osher[31]提出的顯式TVD二階龍格-庫塔格式,隨后他們將該方法在時間和空間上都發(fā)展到高階精度。同一時期,Allmaras[32]和Giles[33]采用二階精度間斷伽遼金方法求解了二維歐拉方程,他們將van Leer的moments限制器從一維線性波動方程拓展到二維歐拉方程,在每個單元內(nèi)部計算單元平均和單元梯度平均值從而對單元變量進行線性重構(gòu)。

      而應(yīng)用間斷伽遼金方法求解橢圓型方程或求解NS方程的粘性項則存在相當(dāng)?shù)睦щy,諸多學(xué)者對此展開了研究。Arnold[34]和Wheeler[35]于20世紀80年代在間斷伽遼金方法中引入了內(nèi)罰函數(shù)(interior penalty),這種方法隨后被廣泛應(yīng)用于求解擴散問題。1999年,Oden和Babuska[36]等提出了一種求解擴散問題新格式,其優(yōu)點是沒有引入額外的過渡變量,但理論上該格式必須在2階以上才穩(wěn)定。21世紀初,Bassi和Rebay[37-40]提出了經(jīng)典的混合方法(mixed formulation),將二階方程寫成多個一階方程的形式,然后采用間斷伽遼金方法對一階系統(tǒng)進行數(shù)值離散。Bassi和Rebay提出的第一種混合方法(BR1格式)計算模板較大,不緊致,且采用隱式方法計算時穩(wěn)定性會受到影響。為了克服這些缺點,他們又在BR1格式基礎(chǔ)上進行了修改,得到了穩(wěn)定緊致的BR2格式。Cockburn和Shu[41-42]則在同一時期對混合方法思想進行了一般化分析,得出了當(dāng)?shù)亻g斷伽遼金方法(Local Discontinuous Galerkin methods, LDG)。但是在多維度數(shù)值計算時,當(dāng)?shù)亻g斷伽遼金方法同樣存在模板大、不緊致的問題,于是之后Persson和Peraire[43]對該方法進行了修改,提出了緊致間斷伽遼金方法(Compact Discontinuous Galerkin methods, CDG),在保留當(dāng)?shù)亻g斷伽遼金方法優(yōu)點的同時使得該格式緊致。Arnold等[44]也引入了內(nèi)罰函數(shù)和混合方法的統(tǒng)一分析框架,對各種格式進行誤差分析。近年來,由Liu 和Yue[45-46]提出的一類直接間斷伽遼金方法 (Direct DG, DDG) 逐漸受到了學(xué)者的關(guān)注,DDG 方法的導(dǎo)出過程不需要引入臨時變量將原有的二階偏微分方程分解為一階偏微分方程組,而是直接基于DG方法的弱形式構(gòu)造單元界面處的粘性數(shù)值通量。

      在上述數(shù)值格式研究成果的基礎(chǔ)上,間斷伽遼金方法迅速在氣動可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬方面引發(fā)了廣泛關(guān)注和嘗試。如前文所述,在計算流體力學(xué)的應(yīng)用中,間斷伽遼金方法結(jié)合了傳統(tǒng)有限元方法和有限體積方法的優(yōu)點,因此相比于傳統(tǒng)的有限元方法,間斷伽遼金方法由于容易實現(xiàn)逆風(fēng)格式,很容易對對流項主導(dǎo)的流動問題進行離散求解;相比于有限體積方法,高階間斷伽遼金方法達到高精度所需要的計算量大大減少。得益于這些優(yōu)勢,間斷伽遼金方法成為了目前計算流體力學(xué)領(lǐng)域極具潛力的高精度方法之一。

      在相應(yīng)的網(wǎng)格技術(shù)方面,Diosady等于2007年左右對間斷多重網(wǎng)格技術(shù)及線性預(yù)處理方法進行了研究[47-48]。同時Lubon等則對適用于間斷伽遼金方法的網(wǎng)格進行了研究,發(fā)展了物面彎曲技術(shù)并采用間斷伽遼金方法進行了RANS及DES數(shù)值模擬[49-51]。 2007年,F(xiàn)idkowski在其博士論文中發(fā)展了網(wǎng)格切割技術(shù),并采用間斷伽遼金方法求解了二維Navier-Stokes方程[52]。隨后其又在間斷伽遼金方法上發(fā)展了網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)技術(shù)及網(wǎng)格變形方法[53-55]。Oliver研究了二維自適應(yīng)高階間斷伽遼金方法,結(jié)合Spalart-Allmaras一方程湍流模型對湍流流動進行了數(shù)值仿真[56-58]。Li Wang在博士論文中對二維間斷伽遼金方法的氣動優(yōu)化問題、網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)問題及高階時間積分方法進行了研究[59-62],近年來其采用間斷伽遼金方法求解了三維RANS方程及麥克斯韋方程并得到了較好的數(shù)值結(jié)果,同時其對SUPG方法也在進行研究[63-65]。Burgess采用自適應(yīng)間斷伽遼金方法對二維湍流流動進行了數(shù)值模擬,并對湍流方程加速求解技術(shù)進行了研究[66-69]。2011到2014年,Bassi等牽頭一項歐盟高精度方法工業(yè)化應(yīng)用項目(IDIHOM)[70],吸引了來自歐洲各地的學(xué)者,繼續(xù)推進高階網(wǎng)格處理技術(shù)以及間斷伽遼金方法數(shù)值求解技術(shù)。

      在間斷伽遼金方法的可壓縮流求解技術(shù)方面,Bassi和Rebay等于1997年采用間斷伽遼金方法求解了Euler方程和Navier-Stokes方程[37-39]之后,又對湍流模型的求解進行了研究,于2005年采用k-ω兩方程模型求解了雷諾平均Navier-Stokes (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes,RANS)方程[40]。隨后該團隊又將間斷伽遼金方法拓展到DES及不可壓縮流動領(lǐng)域[71-72]。Landmann在其博士論文中發(fā)展了并行高階間斷伽遼金方法并求解了二維Navier-Stokes方程及RANS方程[73-74]。2010年左右,Persson等研究了動網(wǎng)格技術(shù),將間斷伽遼金方法應(yīng)用于兩相流及撲翼飛行的數(shù)值仿真[75-77]。Wang等研究了CPR-DG有限元方法并求解了二維和三維Navier-Stokes方程,最近又將其拓展到RANS-LES混合方法的求解[78-81]。Hartmann等[82-86]研究了SST兩方程湍流模型和激波捕捉技術(shù)在間斷伽遼金方法上的應(yīng)用,采用間斷伽遼金方法對二維和三維復(fù)雜外形的流動進行了數(shù)值求解。 值得注意的是,很多學(xué)者提出并發(fā)展了一類重構(gòu)型和混合型的間斷伽遼金方法。這一類方法的基本思想是在DG方法的框架下,借鑒DG方法的優(yōu)勢,通過重構(gòu)方式在原有DG解函數(shù)自由度的基礎(chǔ)上,重構(gòu)高階自由度從而達到高階精度的目的。van Leer 等提出并發(fā)展了一類重構(gòu)DG方法(Recovery DG, RDG)[87]。Dumbser等將DG方法和高精度有限體積方法統(tǒng)一到同一PnPm框架下,提出了一類PnPm方法[88]。之后,Luo[89-95]等在成熟的有限體積求解器基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展了另一類重構(gòu)間斷伽遼金方法(Reconstructed Discontinuous Galerkin Method),并對隱式LES方法進行了初步探究。

      2.2 國內(nèi)發(fā)展與現(xiàn)狀

      國內(nèi)間斷伽遼金方法研究起步相對較晚,但在近十幾年得到了越來越多的科研工作者在應(yīng)用研究方面的關(guān)注。目前廈門大學(xué)、南京航空航天大學(xué)、上海理工大學(xué)、北京航空航天大學(xué)、西北工業(yè)大學(xué)、中國空氣動力研究與發(fā)展中心、北京應(yīng)用物理與計算數(shù)學(xué)研究所等學(xué)校和研究機構(gòu)都對間斷伽遼金方法開展了相關(guān)研究。2005年,蔚喜軍和張鐵[19]采用RKDG有限元方法求解了二維可壓縮Euler方程,并與差分方法的計算結(jié)果進行了比較,證明了間斷伽遼金法的高精度特性和在處理復(fù)雜邊界問題上的優(yōu)勢。隨后趙國忠等將該方法拓展到拉格朗日坐標系下并求解了二維氣動方程組[96-98]。近年來,邱建賢、朱君等將著名的加權(quán)本質(zhì)無振蕩(Weighted Essentially Non-Oscillatory, WENO)格式作為限制器應(yīng)用于間斷伽遼金方法,并求解了兩相流等流動問題[99-104]。2006年左右,呂宏強等采用間斷伽遼金方法求解了面接觸彈性流體動力潤滑問題,最高階數(shù)達到13階,并成功應(yīng)用了hp-adaptivity技術(shù),用極少的計算代價得到了高精度的數(shù)值結(jié)果[105-106]。近年來,其團隊研究了針對高階間斷伽遼金方法的高階彎曲網(wǎng)格生成方法、網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)方法,以及基于間斷伽遼金方法和Moro[107]的修正S-A模型的RANS和DES求解方法,并將CFD領(lǐng)域的間斷伽遼金方法應(yīng)用于時域電磁場數(shù)值模擬領(lǐng)域[108-113]。2010年左右,陳二云等將間斷伽遼金方法應(yīng)用于彈尾超聲速噴流計算問題及氣動聲學(xué)問題中[114-116]。同時,閻超、于劍、姜振華等對間斷伽遼金方法中的間斷捕捉和Navier-Stokes方程進行了研究,并采用Baldwin-Lomax零方程湍流模型求解了二維流動問題[117-122]。郝海兵、李喜樂等也對高階間斷伽遼金方法的限制器及Baldwin-Lomax零方程湍流模型進行了研究,求解了二維流動問題及三維Euler方程[123-124]。賀立新、張來平[125-130]等發(fā)展了DG/FV混合方法,以較少的內(nèi)存需求得到了與間斷伽遼金方法相同的求解精度。程劍和楊小權(quán)等[131-132]人成功地實施了一類新型直接間斷伽遼金方法用于求解粘性可壓縮NS和RANS方程,取得了很好的計算效果。

      總的來說,目前國際上對于間斷伽遼金方法的理論分析、高效求解方法,以及相應(yīng)的網(wǎng)格技術(shù)(如物面高階擬合、自適應(yīng)方法、動網(wǎng)格、變形網(wǎng)格方法等)的研究都很廣泛。并且,很多當(dāng)前的研究工作都已發(fā)展到了三維湍流流動模擬階段,許多正在向RANS-LES混合方法以及一些跨學(xué)科方向(如計算電磁學(xué)、多學(xué)科優(yōu)化、計算聲學(xué))邁進。

      3 間斷伽遼金方法的研究難點及挑戰(zhàn)

      盡管間斷伽遼金方法已經(jīng)取得了相當(dāng)?shù)某晒?,但目前該方法的研究中仍存在著許多難點:

      1) 高精度間斷伽遼金方法一般應(yīng)用于較為稀疏的網(wǎng)格,但是稀疏網(wǎng)格對于復(fù)雜幾何外形的表達精度會對模擬結(jié)果的精度產(chǎn)生很大的影響,而在湍流流動模擬中,該方法對網(wǎng)格質(zhì)量更為敏感,高效通用的高階物面擬合以及高階網(wǎng)格處理技術(shù)是間斷伽遼金方法的研究難點之一;

      2) 高階間斷伽遼金方法在處理間斷問題時(例如激波)一般需使用限制器抑制數(shù)值振蕩,然而在實際應(yīng)用中,特別是定常流動的求解計算過程中,使用限制器會影響殘差的收斂性,造成殘差收斂困難;

      3) 采用高階間斷伽遼金方法數(shù)值求解帶湍流模型的RANS仍然是一個值得繼續(xù)深入探索的問題,目前的相關(guān)研究顯示,湍流模型會導(dǎo)致迭代的穩(wěn)定性和魯棒性不強;

      4) 高精度間斷伽遼金方法中的數(shù)值積分策略以及隱式時間格式的采用較同樣網(wǎng)格量下的傳統(tǒng)方法會產(chǎn)生較大的計算量及內(nèi)存存儲需求且通常需要求解大型的稀疏線性系統(tǒng)。

      很多研究者對這些問題做出了努力并且提出了一些較為有效的解決方案,但仍然存在很大的優(yōu)化和進步空間。

      3.1 適用于間斷伽遼金方法的網(wǎng)格技術(shù)

      由于間斷伽遼金方法的高階精度特點,在使用該方法進行計算時,如果采用過密的網(wǎng)格,將會帶來巨大的計算量和冗余的精度。然而采用稀疏網(wǎng)格進行計算時,傳統(tǒng)的分段線性網(wǎng)格無法對彎曲的邊界進行精準的表達。Bassi[37]、Krivodonova[133]等在采用間斷伽遼金方法進行流場的數(shù)值模擬時都發(fā)現(xiàn),物面的表述精度會對模擬結(jié)果的精度產(chǎn)生非常大的影響,甚至?xí)鹩嬎銦o法收斂的問題。于是利用高階多項式來精準表達物面幾何信息的方法被引入,并且被證明對計算結(jié)果的改善十分有效[133]。Lubon等[51]則發(fā)展了適用于三維四面體網(wǎng)格單元的壁面彎曲修正方法。 但是彎曲網(wǎng)格的方法并不總是有效,例如存在厚度很小的邊界層網(wǎng)格時,彎曲的物面有可能與外層網(wǎng)格交叉,產(chǎn)生負體積。為了解決該問題,Landman[74]博士發(fā)展了多層四邊形網(wǎng)格彎曲的方法避免網(wǎng)格單元出現(xiàn)負體積。Persson[134]等采用拉格朗日固體平衡方程使邊界彎曲信息向外單元傳播,通過全局變形達到平衡。Li Wang等則通過CAPRI方法得到三維物體的真實物面信息,然后根據(jù)線彈性理論求解各向同性線彈性方程得到全局變形后的網(wǎng)格點坐標[64]。呂宏強等發(fā)展了基于求解線性彈性方程的網(wǎng)格高階彎曲方法[135]。秦望龍等[136]則采用了網(wǎng)格結(jié)塊的方法,將多個網(wǎng)格單元聚合成高階有限元單元,利用高階網(wǎng)格單元來對物面進行擬合,并且不會出現(xiàn)交叉和重疊。

      盡管上述方法都被證明十分有效,但這些方法的復(fù)雜程度都較高,通用性也有待檢驗,更通用、更魯棒、更簡單高效的高階網(wǎng)格處理方法,仍然處在發(fā)展之中。 另一方面,諸如傳統(tǒng)CFD方法中的動網(wǎng)格、重疊網(wǎng)格、滑移網(wǎng)格及變形網(wǎng)格等網(wǎng)格技術(shù)由于前述的物面擬合的難點,這些方法在間斷伽遼金方法中的應(yīng)用存在額外的困難,相關(guān)研究也并不多。

      3.2 間斷問題的處理與激波捕捉

      由于間斷伽遼金方法在單元交界面上對變量不做連續(xù)性強制要求,并且采用數(shù)值通量來包容間斷,所以實際上該方法可以不加處理地解決一些含有弱間斷解的問題[20]。但是當(dāng)變量的強間斷落入單元之中時,插值多項式函數(shù)無法對其進行準確的高階表達,進而引發(fā)數(shù)值振蕩甚至發(fā)散。為此,在間斷伽遼金方法中引入適當(dāng)?shù)南拗破魇怯斜匾摹?/p>

      Shu等采用當(dāng)?shù)赝队暗姆椒ㄒ种茢?shù)值振蕩[26-28]。Luo和Xia[90-92]等采用WENO和HWENO格式結(jié)合重構(gòu)間斷伽遼金方法對間斷問題進行了數(shù)值求解。邱建賢、朱君[99-104]等也將WENO格式作為限制器應(yīng)用于間斷伽遼金方法。

      另一類人工黏性的思想也被引入。Persson[138]等采用級數(shù)展開思想捕捉間斷區(qū)域,通過在流動變量間斷的單元內(nèi)添加人工黏性求解了激波問題。在其基礎(chǔ)上,Barter[139]等引入了基于偏微分方程(PDE-based)的人工黏性激波捕捉方法,Nguyen[140]等采用速度的散度來表征流場的壓縮特性,從而確定單元內(nèi)部所需添加的人工黏性的數(shù)值大小。此外,Bassi和Rebay[141]等在2009年提出了一種新的激波捕捉人工黏性添加方法。該方法通過檢測壓力梯度添加人工黏性,人工黏性函數(shù)則通過考慮單元間無黏數(shù)值通量跳躍和單元內(nèi)無黏數(shù)值通量法向分量得出。

      然而上述諸多對數(shù)值振蕩進行抑制的方法,都會或多或少地帶來更多的數(shù)值耗散和色散,引起數(shù)值精度的損失,抑制振蕩的效果也不一而足,在實際應(yīng)用中,特別是定常流動的求解計算過程中,使用限制器還會破壞殘差的收斂性,造成殘差收斂困難。該方面的研究空間依然很大。

      3.3 湍流流動數(shù)值模擬

      盡管湍流流動的機理和理論仍處在研究當(dāng)中,但是經(jīng)過研究者的長期摸索,已發(fā)展出了一系列被廣泛應(yīng)用的湍流模型,例如一方程Spalart-Allmaras湍流模型、兩方程k-ω湍流模型及兩方程SST模型。而在實際計算中,湍流方程的計算變量在網(wǎng)格分辨率不夠的單元內(nèi)會出現(xiàn)或短暫出現(xiàn)非連續(xù)項。如前文所述,對于間斷伽遼金方法,過多的網(wǎng)格將帶來巨大的計算量,此時間斷伽遼金方法對于網(wǎng)格質(zhì)量也更加敏感。而由于在單元內(nèi)通過多項式插值實現(xiàn)高精度格式,間斷伽遼金方法又很難對非連續(xù)項進行表述。這會導(dǎo)致數(shù)值求解的振蕩,從而影響計算收斂甚至引發(fā)發(fā)散。

      大多數(shù)將間斷伽遼金方法應(yīng)用于湍流流動模擬的學(xué)者,都對湍流模型方程進行了修正,以使得計算過程能夠穩(wěn)定和魯棒。但是這些修正的合理性和有效性都需要更深層次的理論與實際檢驗,新的修正方法或者模型也有待提出。近年來,一大批學(xué)者也正在嘗試將間斷伽遼金方法拓展到分離渦模擬(DetachedEddySimulation,DES)、大渦模擬(LargeEddySimulation,LES)及直接數(shù)值模擬(DirectNumericalSimulation,DNS)計算當(dāng)中。

      3.4 如何降低存儲需求以及計算量

      盡管高性能計算設(shè)備的發(fā)展日新月異,但是常規(guī)的高性能設(shè)備仍然無法滿足大規(guī)模的間斷伽遼金方法的計算量要求。

      高精度間斷伽遼金方法中通常采用數(shù)值積分策略來求解積分項,需要在每個單元內(nèi)逐個求取積分點上的數(shù)值并求和。但是隨著近似多項式階數(shù)的提高,積分點的數(shù)目迅速增加,高階間斷伽遼金方法的計算量也迅速提高,一些學(xué)者為此提出了積分無關(guān)方法[145],大大減少了由于積分點數(shù)量帶來的計算量。

      在采用顯式方法進行計算時,僅需存儲右端殘值

      項,存儲量為(Ndegr×Netol)×Nelem,其中Ndegr是單元變量的自由度個數(shù),Netol是方程個數(shù),Nelem是網(wǎng)格單元數(shù)。但是在采用高精度方法求解大尺度流動問題時,顯式時間積分方法的時間步長比傳統(tǒng)顯式方法的時間步長還要小,極大影響了收斂速率。因此,我們只能選擇穩(wěn)定性不受時間步長限制的隱式時間格式,很多學(xué)者對隱式間斷伽遼金方法進行了研究[48,90,146-147]。而采用隱式方法計算時,不僅需要保存右端殘值項,往往還需對雅可比矩陣進行保存,該矩陣規(guī)模為(Ndegr×Netol×Nelem)2??梢娧趴杀染仃嚨拇鎯σ?guī)模遠大于右端殘值項。

      4 間斷伽遼金方法的應(yīng)用舉例

      4.1 三維帶凸起管道流動

      采用三維帶凸起管道流動對三維歐拉方程程序進行精度驗證。該問題為內(nèi)流問題,來流條件為Ma∞=0.5。管道的長、寬和高分別為3、0.5 和0.8,管道下表面x=-1.5到x=1.5之間存在凸起,該凸起的函數(shù)描述為y=0.0625e-25x2。采用歐拉方程進行計算,管道底面設(shè)置為滑移邊界條件,兩側(cè)設(shè)置為對稱邊界條件,其余面設(shè)置為特征邊界條件。文中采用四套連續(xù)加密的網(wǎng)格進行數(shù)值計算,網(wǎng)格點數(shù)由疏到密分別為6×3×2、11×5×3、21×9×5和41×17×9(圖1)。網(wǎng)格均采用結(jié)塊二階網(wǎng)格進行數(shù)值計算。

      (a) Grid 1 (b) Grid 2 (c) Grid 3 (d) Grid 4

      圖1 三維帶凸起管道流動計算網(wǎng)格
      Fig.1 Mesh for three-dimensional tube with protuberance computation

      圖2、圖3和圖4分別給出了四套網(wǎng)格上不同階數(shù)情況下計算得到的密度云圖,壓力云圖及馬赫數(shù)云圖結(jié)果。橫向?qū)Ρ葹榫W(wǎng)格加密,縱向?qū)Ρ葹殡A數(shù)提高??梢园l(fā)現(xiàn),計算結(jié)果隨著網(wǎng)格加密或者計算階數(shù)的提高變得越來越光滑。在相對稀疏的網(wǎng)格上采用高階方法即可得到較好的數(shù)值結(jié)果。

      表1給出了本算例的數(shù)值精度計算結(jié)果。由于本算例為等熵流動,與二維圓柱繞流算例一樣,文中采用熵增的L2誤差作為誤差計算的標準。從計算結(jié)果可以看出,該算例誤差為O(hp+1),基本達到了預(yù)期的精度。圖5三維帶凸起管道流動問題精度測試給出了本算例的數(shù)值誤差-網(wǎng)格尺寸曲線及數(shù)值誤差-自由度曲線,可以看出,本文發(fā)展的三維DG有限元方法計算程序基本達到了格式的預(yù)期計算精度。采用高階方法進行計算,數(shù)值誤差下降的速率比低精度更快。在同等自由度情況下對光滑流場進行計算時,采用高階方法產(chǎn)生的數(shù)值誤差比低階方法更小,驗證了高階方法在光滑流場計算中的優(yōu)勢。圖6三維帶凸起管道流動流場計算結(jié)果為最密的網(wǎng)格上計算得到的馬赫數(shù)云圖及Z=0截面的壓力系數(shù)Cp的分布??梢钥闯?,流場的計算結(jié)果較為光滑,截面得到的壓力系數(shù)分布較為對稱,驗證了文中三維DG歐拉方程計算程序的可靠性。

      圖2 四套網(wǎng)格上的計算密度云圖Fig.2 Density contours on four mesh types

      圖3 四套網(wǎng)格上的計算壓力云圖Fig.3 Pressure contours on four mesh types

      圖4 四套網(wǎng)格上的計算馬赫數(shù)云圖Fig.4 Mach number contours on four mesh types

      表1 三維帶凸起管道流動問題的精度驗證Table 1 Accuracy analysis for three-dimensional tube with a protuberance

      (a) 數(shù)值誤差—網(wǎng)格尺寸

      (b) 數(shù)值誤差—自由度

      (a) 馬赫數(shù)云圖

      (b) 截面壓力系數(shù)分布

      4.2 二維圓柱繞流模擬

      4.2.1 高雷諾數(shù)圓柱繞流非定常DES模擬

      計算來流參數(shù)為Ma∞=0.2,Re=3×106,第一層網(wǎng)格高度為8×10-6,y+≈1,物理時間步長無量綱后取值為Δt*=Δt×a/D=0.2。計算區(qū)域X方向[-8D,15D],Y方向[-8D,8D],物面布點僅有36個,網(wǎng)格數(shù)總量為1105,其中結(jié)構(gòu)網(wǎng)格834個單元。在此雷諾數(shù)下可以認為圓柱尾部分離流動已經(jīng)變?yōu)橥牧鞣蛛x。圖7為圓柱繞流計算網(wǎng)格。

      (a)

      (b)

      圖8為升力系數(shù)、阻力系數(shù)隨時間的變化,都表現(xiàn)出了良好的周期性。因為二維圓柱沒有三維圓柱展向流動,所以非定常流場穩(wěn)定以后變化幅值為固定值。

      如圖9所示,將五階精度(DG_p4)結(jié)果取七個周期計算結(jié)果平均后的平均壓力系數(shù)、摩擦系數(shù)分布與Achenbach[151]的實驗結(jié)果進行了對比,兩者雷諾數(shù)略有差別,但總體趨勢吻合程度較好;與Travin[152]基于有限體積法的三維DES結(jié)果和Nyugen[153]基于DG的二維DES和二維URANS的結(jié)果進行了對比,兩者計算的的網(wǎng)格量分別為41萬、1.8萬。Nyugen雖然也采用了DG方法,但是只達到了P2階數(shù),也就是三階空間精度,本文則達到了五階空間精度。因為雷諾數(shù)較高時,圓柱會存在展向間的流動,二維和三維計算結(jié)果會有所差異。但是相比Nyugen的結(jié)果,本文結(jié)果在尾部流動區(qū)域結(jié)果更趨向合理。摩擦系數(shù)和三維DES計算結(jié)果也十分接近,尾部流動分離區(qū)域模擬結(jié)果也更加接近實驗值。即使在稀疏網(wǎng)格下,隨著階數(shù)提高精度增加,高階間斷有限元法依然可以對分離流動做到極佳的模擬。對比Nyugen的三階精度計算結(jié)果,本文通過提高階數(shù)的方法,相比其提高網(wǎng)格數(shù)帶來的精度提高效果要更加顯著。

      (a) CL~t

      (b) CD~t

      (a)

      (b)

      從圖10中也可以看出,在p1時候,尾跡區(qū)沒有分離,在進入p2以后,流場發(fā)生了巨大的改變,開始出現(xiàn)明顯的周期性的脫落渦。體現(xiàn)了精度提高對流場模擬結(jié)果的改善是巨大的。并且隨著階數(shù)的繼續(xù)提高,脫落渦的耗散也被降低,在遠場區(qū)域也越發(fā)明顯。

      圖11為二維URANS計算結(jié)果,采用的是SA模型。在采用RANS模型進行計算時,因為湍流模型原因,抑制了尾部的分離流動,未形成周期性的渦街,整體流動轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槎ǔA鲃?。而在采用二維DES時,可以對圓柱繞流的分離進行準確的捕捉,說明在二維情況下,對長度尺度的修改依然是有效的,有效提高了對分離流動的模擬。

      (a) 1階DG

      (b) 2階DG

      (c) 3階DG

      (d) 4階DG

      圖11 二維URANS計算結(jié)果Fig.11 Numerical result obtained using two- dimensional URANS

      4.2.2 低雷諾數(shù)網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)圓柱繞流模擬

      我們采用非結(jié)構(gòu)自適應(yīng)網(wǎng)格方法對卡門渦街問題進行了模擬,遠場來流Ma=0.1,α=0,Re=150。初始網(wǎng)格如圖12所示,計算域僅包含1114個單元,并且物面僅有12個網(wǎng)格點。

      (a) The global view

      (b) The local view

      圖13為p4在初始網(wǎng)格上得到的卡門渦街渦量圖,從圖中可以看出由于初始網(wǎng)格比較稀疏,得到的渦量云圖不是很光滑并且渦的量級都比較小,我們可以認為在稀疏網(wǎng)格條件下,即使采用高階格式依然得不到高精度的流場數(shù)值解,主要原因在于大尺度的網(wǎng)格導(dǎo)致的數(shù)值耗散。

      (a) The global view

      (b) The local view

      圖14給出了網(wǎng)格自動加密后的卡門渦街渦量云圖。由于在邊界層和渦街區(qū)域的網(wǎng)格自動加密,數(shù)值耗散降低,數(shù)值結(jié)果變得非常光滑。并且應(yīng)當(dāng)注意到,網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)過程中生成了包含大量懸掛點、尺度差別懸殊的非結(jié)構(gòu)網(wǎng)格,但是結(jié)果并沒有對間斷伽遼金方法的穩(wěn)定性和精度產(chǎn)生嚴重的影響,證明了間斷伽遼金方法能夠有效地處理具有復(fù)雜形狀、質(zhì)量參差不齊的網(wǎng)格。

      (a) The global view

      (b) The local view

      圖15為隨時間變化卡門渦街脫落,網(wǎng)格自動在渦局部進行加密,在渦量很小的地方放粗的動態(tài)結(jié)果。對比圖16可以看出,由于卡門渦街是一個準定常問題,流場周期性變化,網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)后總量變化不大,驗證了自適應(yīng)方法的可行性。

      (a)

      (b)

      (c)

      (d)

      圖16 迭代過程中網(wǎng)格數(shù)量變化Fig.16 Number of elements during the iteration

      圖17為物面加密后升力系數(shù)和阻力系數(shù)隨時間的變化,在表2中與參考文獻[154]進行了對比,可以看出加入自適應(yīng)方法后,即使在很稀疏的初始網(wǎng)格條件下,依然可以得到高精度的數(shù)值解結(jié)果。

      圖17 升力與阻力系數(shù)波動Fig.17 Variation of the lift and drag coefficient

      CLamplitudeCDamplitudeCDmeanInitialmesh0.480.0201.21Adaptivity0.530.0271.33Ref.[154]0.520.0261.32

      5 結(jié) 論

      本文總結(jié)了自20世紀末期以來間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬中的應(yīng)用研究進展。首先,從間斷伽遼金方法的基本概念出發(fā),集中介紹了間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流計算中的國內(nèi)外研究歷史和現(xiàn)狀;其次,較為詳細地列舉分析了間斷伽遼金方法在實際應(yīng)用中面臨的挑戰(zhàn)和困難;最后,給出了數(shù)個典型的算例,展示了間斷伽遼金方法在高精度、網(wǎng)格自適應(yīng)等方面的優(yōu)勢。

      經(jīng)過近二十年的發(fā)展,間斷伽遼金方法數(shù)值求解Euler方程、N-S方程方面有了顯著的進步,出現(xiàn)了大量成功的嘗試和令人鼓舞的結(jié)果,高階情況下其數(shù)值結(jié)果表現(xiàn)出來的高精度特性尤其令人印象深刻。然而高階離散帶來的高度非線性也顯著增加了迭代求解方面的難度和對彎曲網(wǎng)格精度方面的要求。目前高效、魯棒的求解復(fù)雜流場情況下高階離散非線性系統(tǒng)是研究的熱點問題。相信隨著相關(guān)技術(shù)的進一步發(fā)展,高階間斷伽遼金方法會成為復(fù)雜流場高精度數(shù)值模擬領(lǐng)域的有力工具。

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      Applications of discontinuous Galerkin method in numerical simulations of compressible flows: A review

      LYU Hongqiang*, ZHANG Tao, SUN Qiang, CHEN Jianwei, QIN Wanglong
      (College of Aerospace Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China)

      In this paper, we give a review on the international and domestic applications of the promising high-order method(HOM), the discontinuous Galerkin method (DGM), in the numerical simulation of compressible flows over the last three decades. A brief introduction of the basic concepts and attributes of the DGM is given first. Then a historical survey on the DGM’s applications in solving hyperbolic and elliptical equations is presented, mainly concentrating on its development and research status in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Existing challenges and possible trends in the aspects of corresponding mesh technologies, shockwave capturing methods, turbulence simulation, and computational resource requirement are concluded and analyzed as well. Several examples of its applications in the simulation of compressible flows are provided at last.

      discontinuous Galerkin method (DGM); high-order methods; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); compressible flows; curved mesh

      0258-1825(2017)04-0455-17

      2017-03-23;

      2017-06-03

      國家自然科學(xué)基金(11272152); 航空基金(20152752033)

      呂宏強*(1977-), 山東萊陽人,教授,研究方向:高精度數(shù)值模擬,飛行器優(yōu)化. E-mail: hongqiang.lu@nuaa.edu.cn

      呂宏強, 張濤, 孫強, 等. 間斷伽遼金方法在可壓縮流數(shù)值模擬中的應(yīng)用研究綜述[J]. 空氣動力學(xué)學(xué)報, 2017, 35(4): 455-471.

      10.7638/kqdlxxb-2017.0051 LYU H Q, Zhang T, Sun Q, et al. Applications of discontinuous Galerkin method in numerical simulations of compressible flows: A review[J]. Acta Aerodynamica Sinica, 2017, 35(4): 455-471.

      V211.3

      A doi: 10.7638/kqdlxxb-2017.0051

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