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      哲學(xué)僅僅是比科學(xué)難懂嗎?

      2018-01-04 21:50ByDavidPapineau
      英語學(xué)習(xí) 2017年12期
      關(guān)鍵詞:哲學(xué)家哲學(xué)科學(xué)

      By+David+Papineau

      W hats the purpose of philosophy? Alfred North Whitehead characterized it as a series of footnotes to Plato.1 You can see his point. On the surface, we dont seem to have progressed much in the two and a half millennia since Plato wrote his dialogues. Todays philosophers still struggle with many of the same issues that exercised the Greeks. What is the basis of morality? How can we define knowledge? Is there a deeper reality behind the world of appearances?

      Philosophy compares badly with science on this score. Since science took its modern form in the 17th century, it has been one long success story. It has uncovered the workings of nature and brought untold benefits to humanity. Mechanics and electromagnetism underpin the technological advances of the modern world, while chemistry and microbiology have done much to free us from the tyranny of disease.2

      Not all philosophers are troubled by this contrast. For some, the worth of philosophy lies in the process, not the product. In line with Socrates dictum—“The unexamined life is not worth living”—they hold that reflection on the human predicament is valuable in itself,3 even if no definite answers are forthcoming. Others take their lead from Marx—“The philosophers have only interpreted the world. The point, however is to change it”—and view philosophy as an engine of political change, whose purpose is not to reflect reality, but disrupt it.

      Even so, the majority of contemporary philosophers, myself included, probably still think of philosophy as a route to the truth.

      According to the “spin-off” theory of philosophical progress, all new sciences start as branches of philosophy, and only become established as separate disciplines once philosophy has bequeathed them the intellectual wherewithal to survive on their own.4

      There is certainly something to this story. Physics as we know it was grounded in the 17th-century “mechanical philosophy” of Descartes5 and others. Similarly, much psychology hinges on associationist principles first laid down by David Hume, and economics grew out of doctrines first developed by thinkers who called themselves philosophers.6 The process continues into the contemporary world. During the 20th century, both linguistics and computer science broke free of their philosophical moorings7 to establish themselves as independent disciplines.

      According to the spin-off theory, then, the supposed lack of progress in philosophy is an illusion. Whenever philosophy does make progress, it spawns a new subject, which then no longer counts as part of philosophy. In reality, philosophy is full of progress, but this is obscured by the constant renaming of its intellectual progeny8.endprint

      What about those areas where we still seem to be struggling with the same issues as the Greeks? Philosophy hasnt outsourced everything to other university departments, and still retains plenty of its own questions to exercise its students. The trouble is that it doesnt seem to have any definite answers. When it comes to topics like morality, knowledge, free will, consciousness and so on, the lecturers still debate a range of options that have been around for a long time.

      No doubt some of the differences between philosophy and science stem from the different methods of investigation that they employ. Where philosophy hinges on analysis and argument, science is devoted to data.

      Given this contrast, it is scarcely surprising that philosophers disagree more than scientists. Data are data. If you are shown some experimental findings, well, there you are. But arguments have loopholes. So there is always plenty of room for philosophers to take issue with each other, where scientists by contrast have to accept what they are told.

      Questions of physics and chemistry can always be settled by experimental investigation, whereas empirical methods get no grip on morality and free will.9 The problem is that, even though we have all the experimental results we could want, we cant figure out a coherent theory to accommodate them.10 Philosophical problems arise within science as well as outside it.

      Philosophical issues typically have the form of a paradox11. People can be influenced by morality, for example, but moral facts are not part of the causal order. Free will is incompatible with determinism,12 but incompatible with randomness too. We know that we are sitting at a real table, but our evidence doesnt exclude us sitting in a Matrix-like13 computer simulation. In the face of such conundrums, we need philosophical methods to unravel our thinking.14 Something is amiss, but we arent sure what. We need to catalogue our assumptions, often including those we didnt know we had, and subject them to15 critical analysis.

      This is why philosophical problems can arise in scientific subject areas too. Scientific theories can themselves be infected by paradox. Altruism16 cant possibly evolve, but it does. Here again philosophical methods are called for. We need to figure out where our thinking is leading us astray, to winnow through our theoretical presuppositions and locate the flaws.17endprint

      It should be said that scientists arent very good at this kind of thing. They are much happier with what Thomas Kuhn called “normal science”, working within “paradigms”of settled assumptions and techniques that allow them to focus on issues that can be settled experimentally.18 When they are faced with a real theoretical puzzle, most scientists close their eyes and hope it will go away.

      Perhaps there is more progress in philosophy than at first appears, even apart from the spin-off disciplines. On the surface it may look as if nothing is ever settled. But behind the appearances, philosophy is by no means incapable of advancing.

      哲學(xué)的目的是什么?阿爾弗雷德·諾斯·懷特海德認(rèn)為,哲學(xué)無非是柏拉圖哲學(xué)的注腳。你能明白他的意思。表面上看,在柏拉圖《對(duì)話錄》之后的2,500年里,哲學(xué)并沒有取得多大進(jìn)步。千年前困擾希臘哲人的問題如今依舊讓哲學(xué)家感到頭疼。比如:道德的基礎(chǔ)是什么?如何定義知識(shí)?世間萬物的表象下是否深藏著一個(gè)真相?

      在這一點(diǎn)來說,哲學(xué)比科學(xué)差了不少。自17世紀(jì)起,現(xiàn)代意義上的科學(xué)就已成形,并開始書寫它漫長的成功史??茖W(xué)揭示了自然的運(yùn)作方式,為人類帶來無盡的福祉。機(jī)械和電磁學(xué)推進(jìn)了現(xiàn)代社會(huì)的科技進(jìn)步,化學(xué)和微生物學(xué)讓我們免受疾病的暴力侵襲。

      并非所有哲學(xué)家都為這一懸殊對(duì)比而煩惱。一些哲學(xué)家認(rèn)為,哲學(xué)的價(jià)值在于探索的過程,而非結(jié)果。古希臘哲學(xué)家蘇格拉底有句名言:“未經(jīng)審視的人生不值得過”,贊同蘇格拉底的這些哲學(xué)家認(rèn)為對(duì)人類困境的思索本身就是可貴的,即便這樣的思索得不出確切的答案。還有一些哲學(xué)家以馬克思的名言為導(dǎo)向——“哲學(xué)家只是解釋世界,而問題在于改變世界”,認(rèn)為哲學(xué)是政治變革的引擎,其目的并非反映現(xiàn)實(shí),而是干預(yù)現(xiàn)實(shí)。

      即便如此,大多數(shù)當(dāng)代哲學(xué)家,包括我在內(nèi),仍然認(rèn)為哲學(xué)是通往真理之徑。

      根據(jù)哲學(xué)發(fā)展的“副產(chǎn)品”理論,所有新興科學(xué)一開始都是哲學(xué)的分支,只有哲學(xué)賜予它們足夠的知識(shí)能力后才能靠自己生存,成為一門獨(dú)立學(xué)科。

      這么說當(dāng)然不是空穴來風(fēng)。我們所熟知的物理學(xué)是基于17世紀(jì)笛卡爾和其他哲學(xué)家的“機(jī)械論哲學(xué)”。同樣,當(dāng)代心理學(xué)的許多理論都是依靠大衛(wèi)·休謨最早提出的聯(lián)想原則,經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)也是從自稱為哲學(xué)家的思想家們所研究出的規(guī)則中發(fā)展出來的。這一進(jìn)程持續(xù)到當(dāng)今社會(huì)。20世紀(jì),語言學(xué)和計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)也脫離哲學(xué)范疇,成為了獨(dú)立學(xué)科。

      根據(jù)“副產(chǎn)品”理論,哲學(xué)領(lǐng)域看似發(fā)展緩慢其實(shí)只是一個(gè)幻覺。哲學(xué)的每一次進(jìn)步都孵化出一門新學(xué)科,隨即脫離哲學(xué)而獨(dú)立存在。其實(shí),哲學(xué)一直在前進(jìn),只是它的進(jìn)步被其知識(shí)成果經(jīng)常性的重命名所掩蓋了。

      那么,那些曾經(jīng)困擾希臘哲人,現(xiàn)在仍然在困擾我們的領(lǐng)域呢?哲學(xué)并沒有把所有問題都轉(zhuǎn)嫁給大學(xué)其他院系,而是保留了許多問題讓哲學(xué)系學(xué)生來開動(dòng)腦筋。問題是對(duì)于這些問題,哲學(xué)上并沒有明確的答案。在談到道德、知識(shí)、自由意志、意識(shí)等話題時(shí),講師們爭論的仍然是由來已久的內(nèi)容。

      毫無疑問,哲學(xué)和科學(xué)之間的一些差異源于它們探索問題時(shí)采取的不同方法。哲學(xué)強(qiáng)調(diào)分析和論證,科學(xué)看重?cái)?shù)據(jù)。

      考慮到這一對(duì)比,哲學(xué)家比科學(xué)家更容易彼此產(chǎn)生分歧就不足為奇了??茖W(xué)靠數(shù)據(jù)說話。如果你有實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù),好吧,聽你的。但是論證會(huì)有漏洞。因此,哲學(xué)家有足夠的空間來互相質(zhì)疑,而相比之下,科學(xué)家則只能接受實(shí)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)。

      物理和化學(xué)問題總能用實(shí)驗(yàn)研究解決,然而經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的方法對(duì)道德和自由意志卻行不通。因?yàn)楸M管我們有一切想要的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果,卻找不到一個(gè)通俗的理論來解釋它。哲學(xué)問題產(chǎn)生于科學(xué)之內(nèi),也產(chǎn)生于科學(xué)之外。

      哲學(xué)問題通常以悖論的形式存在。比如,人們會(huì)被道德所影響,但是道德事實(shí)卻不遵循因果順序。自由意志與宿命論不兼容,但與隨機(jī)性也不兼容。我們知道自己坐在一張真實(shí)的桌子旁,但我們的數(shù)據(jù)并不排除自己其實(shí)是坐在一個(gè)像《黑客帝國》里那樣的虛擬世界中。面對(duì)這樣的難題,我們需要哲學(xué)方法來揭開思維之謎。我們總覺得哪里出了問題,卻又不敢肯定。所以,我們需要為假想歸類,通常包括那些我們并不知其存在的東西,然后對(duì)它們進(jìn)行批判性分析。

      這就是為什么哲學(xué)問題也會(huì)出現(xiàn)在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域。科學(xué)理論本身會(huì)被悖論影響。利他主義本不可能發(fā)展,而實(shí)際上卻發(fā)展了。因此這里需要再次訴諸哲學(xué)方法。我們要找出思維在何處偏離了軌道,剔除理論假想,找到問題所在。

      需要指出的是科學(xué)家并不擅長這類事情??茖W(xué)家更樂意研究托馬斯·庫恩所說的“常規(guī)科學(xué)”,在既定設(shè)想和方法的“范式”內(nèi)工作,以便集中研究可以用實(shí)驗(yàn)來解決的問題。當(dāng)科學(xué)家面臨真正的理論難題時(shí),絕大多數(shù)人會(huì)閉上眼睛,祈禱問題自行消失。

      或許哲學(xué)的進(jìn)步比最初看起來的要大,即使不算它的“副產(chǎn)品”學(xué)科。表面上看,哲學(xué)似乎什么問題也沒有解決。但在表象之下,哲學(xué)絕不是無力前進(jìn)的。endprint

      1. Alfred North Whitehead: 阿爾弗雷德·諾斯·懷特海德(1861—1947),英國數(shù)學(xué)家、哲學(xué)家,“過程哲學(xué)”的創(chuàng)始人;Plato: 柏拉圖(427BC—347BC),古希臘偉大的哲學(xué)家,也是整個(gè)西方文化最偉大的哲學(xué)家和思想家之一。他和老師蘇格拉底、學(xué)生亞里士多德并稱“希臘三賢”。

      2. underpin: 加強(qiáng),鞏固;tyranny: 暴虐,專橫。

      3. dictum: 名言,格言;predicament:// 困境,窘?jīng)r。

      4. spin-off: 副產(chǎn)品;bequeath: 遺贈(zèng),遺留;wherewithal: //(某一特定用途的)必要資金,必要手段。

      5. Descartes: 勒內(nèi)·笛卡爾(Rene Descartes, 1596—1650),法國著名哲學(xué)家、物理學(xué)家、數(shù)學(xué)家,有“近代哲學(xué)之父”、“解析幾何之父”之稱。

      6. hinge on: 依……而定,取決于;David Hume: 大衛(wèi)·休謨(1711—1776),蘇格蘭哲學(xué)家,是蘇格蘭啟蒙運(yùn)動(dòng)以及西方哲學(xué)史中的重要人物;doctrine:教條,學(xué)說。

      7. mooring: (繩、鏈等)系船用具,系泊裝置。

      8. progeny: // 后代,后續(xù)事物。

      9. empirical: 以科學(xué)實(shí)驗(yàn)為依據(jù)的,經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的;get a grip on: 理解,掌握。

      10. coherent: (陳述)條理清楚的,易于理解的;accommodate: 使適應(yīng),使相符。

      11. paradox: 悖論,自相矛盾的人或事。

      12. incompatible: 不相容的,矛盾的;determinism: 決定論,宿命論。

      13. Matrix: 指電影《黑客帝國》里的虛擬世界“矩陣”(The Matrix)。影片中人類生活在這個(gè)完全沉浸式的虛擬現(xiàn)實(shí)中,并認(rèn)為這就是真實(shí)世界。

      14. conundrum: // 令人迷惑的難題,復(fù)雜難解的問題;unravel: 闡釋,說明。

      15. subject to: 使經(jīng)受,使遭受。

      16. altruism: 利他主義,指無私地為他人的福利著想、認(rèn)為別人的幸??鞓繁茸约旱母匾男袨椤?/p>

      17. lead sb. astray: 把某人引入歧途;winnow:篩選,遴選;presupposition: 預(yù)先假定(的事)。

      18. Thomas Kuhn: 托馬斯·庫恩(1922—1996),美國科學(xué)史家、科學(xué)哲學(xué)家,代表作有《哥白尼革命》和《科學(xué)革命的結(jié)構(gòu)》;paradigm: // 范式。

      閱讀感評(píng)

      ∷秋葉 評(píng)

      原文中討論的哲學(xué)與科學(xué)的關(guān)系,令筆者聯(lián)想到大約60年前英國物理化學(xué)家兼小說家C. P. 斯諾提出的“兩種文化”的概念,用以描繪他所見的科學(xué)與文學(xué)之間的分野。1959年5月,斯諾在劍橋作了一個(gè)講座,題目是《兩種文化與科學(xué)革命》,后來又據(jù)此出版了同名書籍。斯諾的著名論斷是“所有西方社會(huì)的知識(shí)生活都日益分裂成兩個(gè)處于頂端的團(tuán)體”,即科學(xué)家與文學(xué)研究者。斯諾大致將當(dāng)時(shí)的“相互之間無法理解的鴻溝”歸咎于研究文學(xué)的那一類人。他斷言,這些知識(shí)分子對(duì)于自己不懂熱力學(xué)第二定律一點(diǎn)都不感覺害臊尷尬。然而問一位科學(xué)家“你讀過莎士比亞的作品嗎”,顯然會(huì)讓他大失顏面。斯諾認(rèn)為社會(huì)科學(xué)家們能夠形成“第三種文化”。大約三十多年前,美國出版代理人約翰·布羅克曼套用“第三種文化”的概念來描繪進(jìn)化生物學(xué)家、心理學(xué)家與神經(jīng)學(xué)家,因?yàn)樵谒磥?,這些以人為主要研究對(duì)象的科學(xué)家“向我們呈現(xiàn)了生活的深層意義”,并在“塑造他們那一代思想”的能力方面超越了文學(xué)藝術(shù)家們。誠然,至少在西方,自16世紀(jì)開始的科學(xué)革命呈現(xiàn)了持續(xù)不斷、日積月累的發(fā)展歷程。也是自那時(shí)起,科學(xué)在西方逐漸成為了占支配地位的知識(shí)實(shí)踐,同時(shí)以人們未曾預(yù)見的方式改變這個(gè)世界,并解決人類的一系列問題。與此相對(duì),斯諾認(rèn)為,20世紀(jì)的進(jìn)步正在受到來自詩人與小說家漠然態(tài)度的阻礙。英國數(shù)學(xué)家、哲學(xué)家懷特海德(Alfred N. Whitehead)更是把古希臘以后的哲學(xué)研究說成只是“給柏拉圖做注腳(a series of footnotes to Plato)”,似乎這25個(gè)世紀(jì)的哲學(xué)研究都無法跨越其《對(duì)話錄》的高峰,這與現(xiàn)代意義上科學(xué)發(fā)展不斷獲得重大發(fā)現(xiàn)與發(fā)明的一般規(guī)律形成了鮮明的對(duì)比。

      然而,我們知道,雖然科學(xué)與哲學(xué)追求的都是真理,但兩者在追求真理之路上的側(cè)重點(diǎn)與所采用的方式方法并不完全相同,常有物質(zhì)與精神及客觀世界與主觀世界的分野。因此,它們之間實(shí)在難以作機(jī)械的比較,更無法“一決高下”?!罢軐W(xué)”在人類社會(huì)中自有其價(jià)值與貢獻(xiàn),更是人類不可或缺的知識(shí)與傳統(tǒng)。在古希臘語中,“philosophia”是“愛智慧(love of wisdom)”的意思。在英國歷史上寫下濃墨重彩一筆的阿爾弗雷德大帝(Alfred the Great, 849—899)曾親手制訂了一個(gè)教育普通人和神職人員的讀書計(jì)劃,因?yàn)樗J(rèn)為“沒有比智慧更重要的東西了”。

      哲學(xué)有自己永恒的主題,如原文中提到的“道德的基礎(chǔ)”、“知識(shí)的定義”、“自由意志與理念”,以及“表象與真相的關(guān)系”等等。其實(shí),這些正是歐洲文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期所標(biāo)舉的“人文主義”的核心內(nèi)容,也正是18世紀(jì)英國詩人亞歷山大·蒲柏(Alexander Pope)所想的“對(duì)人類徹底的研究是對(duì)人本身的研究”。自柏拉圖以來直至當(dāng)代哲學(xué)家福柯與德里達(dá),不斷地對(duì)上述問題予以叩問與闡釋,但迄今為止似乎并未達(dá)成什么共識(shí),更看不到哲學(xué)統(tǒng)一的前景??茖W(xué)的傾向和形而上學(xué)的傾向并存,存在主義的主觀性與實(shí)證主義的客觀性互不相讓,眾說紛紜、各立門戶是哲學(xué)領(lǐng)域中的普遍現(xiàn)象??茖W(xué)的推進(jìn)靠實(shí)驗(yàn)與數(shù)據(jù)的客觀標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與實(shí)證規(guī)范,而哲學(xué)卻是由大腦的“智慧”決定,靠個(gè)人的闡釋、分析甚至偏愛,在因果關(guān)系與邏輯上都難以做到無懈可擊,自然也就允許見仁見智了。其實(shí)人文學(xué)術(shù)的特點(diǎn)概莫如此。好在人文學(xué)術(shù)的推進(jìn),并不像政治外交那樣,常需要“思想統(tǒng)一”或達(dá)成“共識(shí)”作為問題解決的基礎(chǔ)。原文說“哲學(xué)的價(jià)值在于過程,而非結(jié)果”,“思考本身比確切的答案更有價(jià)值”,此言不謬。

      有人說,文學(xué)讓人浪漫,歷史讓人厚重,哲學(xué)讓人深刻。如果從另一角度來看,我們會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn),文學(xué)乃人生百態(tài)的臨摹與再現(xiàn),是對(duì)人情感的訓(xùn)練;歷史因其提供的大圖景與縱深視角,是對(duì)睿智生活的訓(xùn)練,而哲學(xué)即為對(duì)人理性思維的訓(xùn)練。這三種訓(xùn)練所造就的能力相得益彰,使得人生更有價(jià)值。我們必須承認(rèn),在很大程度上由于科學(xué)的發(fā)展,20世紀(jì)給大約一半的人類帶來了前所未有的物質(zhì)繁榮,但遺憾的是,隨之而來的并非是與其相應(yīng)的社會(huì)的更加安全和穩(wěn)定。筆者相信,人文學(xué)科可以對(duì)整個(gè)人類的繁榮與幸福作出貢獻(xiàn),因?yàn)椤熬瘛睂用娴年P(guān)注會(huì)使生活更有價(jià)值。但同時(shí)也需指出,倘若缺乏理性思維與分析深度,人類會(huì)付出沉重代價(jià),因?yàn)樘热簟袄硇猿了?,群魔亂舞”!endprint

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