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      此去經(jīng)年多冷暖?桑葉應(yīng)先知

      2020-06-21 15:08:40趙豐
      文化交流 2020年6期
      關(guān)鍵詞:絲綢沙漠草原

      史學(xué)篇

      絲綢之路其實(shí)并不是一條明確的路,只是一個(gè)通道,或是一個(gè)交通帶。這是條東起中國、西達(dá)歐洲、連接歐亞大陸的交通帶。絲綢之路的路線、興衰、物品交流、作用及影響等,都值得不斷地深入探討和研究,這也是我們今天探索“絲綢之路經(jīng)濟(jì)帶”的一份必要的歷史資源。

      絲綢之路這一名稱由德國地理學(xué)家李?;舴遥ㄔ叽蔚竭^中國)于1877年提出,此后,各種著述層出不窮,關(guān)于絲綢之路的概念也有所拓展,如海上絲綢之路、草原絲綢之路、西南絲綢之路等。

      絲綢之路上還有許多鮮為人知的歷史細(xì)節(jié),同樣值得一說。

      絲綢之路,到底有幾條路線

      李?;舴姨岢龅慕z綢之路,主要是指歐亞之間的一條陸路通道(后被稱為沙漠綠洲絲綢之路),中途經(jīng)過亞洲腹地,在干旱的沙漠、戈壁和高原中由綠洲相連而成。而中間又有分道,如從西安出發(fā)經(jīng)河西走廊到敦煌后,就在新疆境內(nèi)分為南、中、北三道,其中南、中兩道到喀什又匯成一道,翻越帕米爾高原后進(jìn)入中亞地區(qū)。通過烏茲別克斯坦、吉爾吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、土庫曼斯坦等為主的中亞兩河流域,到達(dá)伊朗高原,然后再到達(dá)地中海沿岸。其實(shí),這一路線在中國古籍《隋書·裴矩傳》中已有記載,雖然有所不同,但大體相似。

      最早提出海上絲綢之路的或可以算是法國漢學(xué)家沙畹,1903年,他在其《西突厥史料》書中說到,絲綢之路可分為陸路和海路兩條。1968年,日本三杉隆敏出版《探索海上絲綢之路》。而在中國,陳炎是最早關(guān)注和研究海上絲綢之路的學(xué)者,他于1980年正式提出這一概念,而后又發(fā)表了一系列關(guān)于海上絲綢之路的文章。至于海上絲綢之路的具體走向,則包括意大利、希臘、土耳其、埃及、阿曼、巴基斯坦、印度、斯里蘭卡、泰國、馬來西亞、印尼、文萊、菲律賓、中國、韓國和日本等國。

      關(guān)于草原絲綢之路的提出,目前沒有一個(gè)較為明確的說法。西方學(xué)者更多地將其稱作草原之路,其實(shí)就是一條天然的草原通道。因?yàn)樵跉W亞大陸的地理環(huán)境中,北亞遍布寒冷的苔原和亞寒帶針葉林,中亞又有崇山峻嶺和戈壁沙漠,只有在北緯40度至50度之間的中緯度地區(qū),才有利于人類的東西向交通。而這個(gè)地區(qū)恰好就是草原地帶,向西可以連接中亞和東歐,向南越過阿勒泰山可以連接新疆,向東南則可通往中國的中原地區(qū)。

      關(guān)于絲綢之路的路線,最有影響力的應(yīng)數(shù)聯(lián)合國教科文組織的絲綢之路項(xiàng)目——“絲綢之路的整體研究:對(duì)話之路”。這是自1988年開始、歷時(shí)10年的大型學(xué)術(shù)活動(dòng),共進(jìn)行了5次考察:1990年從西安到喀什的沙漠絲綢之路,1990~1991年從威尼斯到大阪的海上絲綢之路,1991年中亞草原絲綢之路,1992年蒙古游牧絲綢之路,以及1995年尼泊爾佛教絲綢之路。除了佛教絲綢之路這一小段亞洲國家之間的通道外,其余的就是沙漠絲綢之路、海上絲綢之路及草原絲綢之路(中亞草原絲綢之路和蒙古游牧絲綢之路,剛好是一條草原絲綢之路)。

      中國境內(nèi)的絲綢之路,應(yīng)該有幾條

      關(guān)于中國境內(nèi)的絲綢之路,中國學(xué)者徐蘋芳在《考古學(xué)上所見中國境內(nèi)的絲綢之路》文中提到有4條,一是漢唐兩京(長安和洛陽)經(jīng)河西走廊至西域路,這是絲綢之路的主道,它因通過新疆的塔克拉瑪干沙漠和中亞的若干沙漠地區(qū),被稱為絲綢之路的沙漠路線;二是中國北部的草原絲綢之路;三是中國四川、云南和西藏的西南絲綢之路;四是中國東南沿海的海上絲綢之路。

      從歐亞大陸上的東西文化交流通道來說,現(xiàn)在較為公認(rèn)的絲綢之路有三大路線:沙漠綠洲絲綢之路、海上絲綢之路和草原絲綢之路。真正完整描述三條絲綢之路的學(xué)者要數(shù)著名中外交流史專家黃時(shí)鑒,他于1991年為中國絲綢博物館展廳繪制了一幅網(wǎng)絡(luò)式的絲綢之路全圖,此圖黃時(shí)鑒有專文論述,經(jīng)他同意收錄在趙豐主編的《中國絲綢通史》中。

      西南絲綢之路,從四川進(jìn)入西藏,過尼泊爾而到達(dá)印度,或經(jīng)大理而入緬甸。但此后它又可以分為兩路,一路可以北上到達(dá)中亞,融入沙漠絲綢之路,另一路南下連通海上絲綢之路。

      海上絲綢之路形成的一個(gè)重要原因是阿拉伯人的海上航行技術(shù),包括造船技術(shù)、帆船駕駛以及對(duì)海洋知識(shí)的積累。同時(shí),人們對(duì)海洋知識(shí)的進(jìn)一步了解和航海工具的創(chuàng)新,特別是指南針的應(yīng)用和地圖的繪制,使得海上絲綢之路的航行更加順暢。

      最早的絲綢之路,是在哪一塊區(qū)域

      絲綢之路是在世界文明發(fā)展的背景下形成的。從目前來看,絲綢之路的形成與發(fā)展可以分成三個(gè)大的階段,以草原絲路為主的青銅時(shí)代到早期鐵器時(shí)代,即從以沙漠和綠洲絲路為主的戰(zhàn)國漢唐時(shí)期和以海上絲路為主的宋元明時(shí)期。

      早在5000年前,歐亞大陸上的古代文明格局已經(jīng)初步形成,古埃及、古巴比倫、古印度和古中國四大文明古國,分布在目前亞洲的主要區(qū)域,在歐洲則是米諾斯——邁錫尼文明,這一時(shí)期,人們對(duì)草原幾乎一無所知。當(dāng)整個(gè)世界進(jìn)入青銅時(shí)代后,這些文明的區(qū)域都相對(duì)集中,在中間則是文明的過渡地帶,而文明的交往選擇了最為方便的草原途徑,依賴游牧民族來進(jìn)行。

      于是,人們對(duì)遼闊無垠的草原民族開始有所了解。他們的活動(dòng)地域,就在歐亞草原之上,從東到西,都有他們活動(dòng)的身影。

      雖然草原絲綢之路的很多貿(mào)易細(xì)節(jié)已不清晰,但其結(jié)果卻十分明顯,我們可以在希臘文獻(xiàn)中讀到大量關(guān)于絲綢的記載。維吉爾在《田園詩》中寫道:“賽里斯人從他們那里的樹葉上采集下了非常纖細(xì)的羊毛?!崩掀樟帜嵩谄洹蹲匀皇贰芬粫猩鷦?dòng)地描述了賽里斯人和他們向樹木噴水沖刷下樹葉上的白色絨毛,并用此完成紡線和織造這兩道工序。直到包撒尼雅斯(公元2世紀(jì))開始,人們才知道絲綢來自一種叫蠶的昆蟲,但他在《希臘志》中對(duì)蠶的描述卻是“近似于蜘蛛”。

      沙漠綠洲絲綢之路,何以在唐朝衰落

      2000多年前,東西方分別發(fā)生了兩件重大的事,對(duì)絲綢之路沙漠線的形成產(chǎn)生了巨大的影響。在西側(cè)是亞歷山大東征和羅馬帝國的興起,在東方則是漢武帝時(shí)期的張騫通西域。

      公元前336年,亞歷山大征服并統(tǒng)治了整個(gè)希臘。然后,他又開始了對(duì)東方的征戰(zhàn),殲滅了強(qiáng)大的波斯帝國軍隊(duì),占領(lǐng)了印度的大部。但亞歷山大去世后,曾經(jīng)被他占領(lǐng)的土地就被他的部將分裂成了若干國家。

      從漢武帝開始,位于東方的漢朝國力逐漸強(qiáng)盛,一方面他們與匈奴正面作戰(zhàn),另一方面也聯(lián)合其他部落圍攻匈奴。公元前139年,漢武帝派張騫出使西域,但張騫一出西域就被匈奴人所囚禁,若干年后逃回長安。公元前119年,張騫再次前往西域。這次,張騫偕同副使、將士等三百余人,攜帶牛羊萬頭、金幣帛數(shù)千萬從長安出發(fā),在到達(dá)烏孫(今之新疆)后派副使去大宛、康居、大月氏、大夏等國(大宛相當(dāng)于費(fèi)爾干納,康居相當(dāng)于撒馬爾罕,大月氏也在中亞地區(qū),大夏位于阿富汗和巴基斯坦一帶)。這樣,一條在沙漠戈壁里行走、通過一個(gè)個(gè)綠洲連起來的絲綢之路就基本形成了。

      一旦通道形成,大家都開始利用這一通道。絲綢之路沿途的國家或部落之間的使者、商人、僧人等都開始行走在這條通道上。由國家主導(dǎo)的軍事力量也開始管理和維護(hù)絲綢之路的暢通。如漢代在西北地區(qū)的軍事屯田,修筑的長城一直到敦煌一帶。而唐代的疆土更為遼闊,四大都護(hù)府的建立,各處邊關(guān)的運(yùn)作,都在極力保護(hù)和經(jīng)營著絲綢之路。這種情況一直到阿拉伯興起,特別是在高仙芝一戰(zhàn)之后唐朝放棄了對(duì)絲路的經(jīng)營,中亞落入伊斯蘭的手中,沙漠綠洲絲綢之路才逐漸衰落。

      大量的南海沉船中,有沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)絲綢

      從中唐開始,中國西部逐漸分裂成若干勢(shì)力范圍,中原朝廷無力控制絲綢之路。與此同時(shí),中國經(jīng)濟(jì)重心的南移,沿海港口的成熟,使東南地區(qū)的出海貿(mào)易變得十分活躍。唐朝于顯慶六年(661年)在廣州設(shè)置市舶司,廣州成為中國海上貿(mào)易的重要港口。由于廣州港外商云集,所以又在廣州設(shè)蕃坊,專供外商居留。世界各地的商人們通過海路,前來購買中國的絲綢,同時(shí)也帶來世界各地的商品,從晚唐到宋元,海上絲綢之路十分興盛。

      唐宋之際海上絲綢之路的興盛,可以從大量的南海沉船中看出。1998年,屬于唐晚期到五代初的黑石號(hào)沉船在印尼勿里洞島海域附近出水,其中中國瓷器就達(dá)到6.7萬多件。2003年,印尼爪哇附近海域又發(fā)現(xiàn)五代時(shí)的井里汶沉船,其中更有數(shù)萬件浙江越窯瓷器。此外,中國海域中也發(fā)現(xiàn)大量南宋沉船,如著名的南海1號(hào)沉船屬于南宋初年,華光礁1號(hào)沉船屬于南宋中期。

      這些沉船上雖然沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)絲綢,但并不說明當(dāng)時(shí)不存在絲綢??脊艑W(xué)家在南海1號(hào)沉船上發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個(gè)空艙,但中國絲綢博物館科研人員采用基于免疫學(xué)原理的絲綢微痕檢測(cè)技術(shù),在艙底泥沙中發(fā)現(xiàn)了絲綢的殘留物,說明這一艙內(nèi)當(dāng)時(shí)曾裝載了絲綢。海上通道在隋唐時(shí)運(yùn)送的主要大宗貨物還是絲綢,而到了宋元時(shí)期,瓷器的出口漸漸成為主要貨物,因此,人們也把它叫作“海上陶瓷之路”。

      唐時(shí)的中國絲綢,在瑞典被發(fā)現(xiàn)

      無可否認(rèn),絲綢在沙漠絲綢之路上占據(jù)著絕對(duì)的主導(dǎo)地位。目前發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早絲綢實(shí)物是戰(zhàn)國時(shí)期的織錦和刺繡,在阿勒泰山北側(cè)的巴澤雷克和烏魯木齊附近的阿拉溝一帶出土,說明了早期沙漠和草原之路的連接。

      漢唐之間的絲綢大多數(shù)出自甘肅和新疆。特別是在甘肅敦煌,無論是漢代的烽燧遺址還是莫高窟藏經(jīng)洞的唐代寶藏,都是絲綢之路的重要見證。在敘利亞的帕爾米拉也發(fā)現(xiàn)了中國的絲綢,這個(gè)羅馬時(shí)期遺址中發(fā)現(xiàn)的中國絲綢,其風(fēng)格與中國境內(nèi)發(fā)現(xiàn)的漢錦完全一樣。唐代前后的中國絲綢,甚至還在北歐挪威和瑞典維京時(shí)期的遺址中發(fā)現(xiàn),這些絲綢無疑是被人們轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)到那里的。

      絲綢在海上的發(fā)現(xiàn)雖然沒有實(shí)物,但佐證材料很多。印度尼西亞的世界文化遺產(chǎn)婆羅浮圖,是9世紀(jì)東南亞最大的佛教造像群,其中也有著模擬織錦的圖案,顯然是唐代的聯(lián)珠團(tuán)窠織錦紋樣。在12世紀(jì)至13世紀(jì)的印尼佛像中,也有大量球路紋樣與宋代前后流行的球路紋錦相同。

      大量西洋布,通過海路傳入中國

      西洋布,是指來自海上絲綢之路的棉紡織品,這一名詞首見于元代。

      棉的起源地?zé)o疑是在南亞次大陸,在印度河流域的摩享朱達(dá)羅遺址中已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)了棉織物。在漢晉時(shí)期,棉布從北印度一帶通過沙漠綠洲絲綢之路向中國西北地區(qū)傳播。新疆一帶的漢晉時(shí)期墓地中基本上都有棉布出土,最為有名的一件是尼雅遺址的蠟染棉布,其上有提喀女神、赫拉克利斯等希臘化藝術(shù)造型。到唐代,棉花在新疆已得到栽培,并在敦煌一帶得到紡織。

      對(duì)于棉布來說,更為重要的道路是海路。宋趙汝適《諸蕃志》經(jīng)常提到海上絲綢之路上棉布的貿(mào)易,不過,當(dāng)時(shí)東南亞一帶不僅有棉布貿(mào)易,而且棉紡織生產(chǎn)也已十分發(fā)達(dá)。元代黃道婆在海南黎族學(xué)到棉紡織技術(shù)然后再傳播到松江一帶的故事,就說明了東南亞棉紡織生產(chǎn)的發(fā)達(dá)。

      趙孟頫就曾收到僧人晉之送他的西洋布。更有意思的是,西洋布還曾在江西明墓中出土。益宣王朱翊鈏墓中出土了一塊寫有墨書“西洋布”的棉布,可能是目前所知唯一有明確依據(jù)的明代進(jìn)口棉布。此外,意大利人利瑪竇在明末北上覲見明神宗時(shí),也帶去了“大西洋布與葛布共五匹”。

      明朝黃省曾在《西洋朝貢典錄》中也提到了東南亞各國對(duì)中國的貢物中有很多紡織品,其中大部分都是棉布,如蕪蔓番紗、紅印花布、油紅綿布、圓壁花布、番花手巾、番花手帕、兜羅綿被、苾布、西洋布、纏頭布等,種類十分豐富。

      在絲路上,絲綢還是一種貨幣

      絲綢在絲綢之路上扮演的角色不光是一種商品,而且還是一種貨幣。很多大宗貿(mào)易就是用絲綢作為貨幣進(jìn)行交易的,特別是牲口和奴婢。當(dāng)時(shí)敦煌和吐魯番一帶的馬價(jià)一般在15匹練左右,較次的在10匹練左右,而奴婢的買賣價(jià)格有時(shí)是40匹練。

      用絲綢作為貨幣的另一個(gè)好處是絲綢不會(huì)貶值。絲綢之路沿途,特別是在中國的西北地區(qū),流通著波斯銀幣、銅幣和絲織品三種貨幣。根據(jù)對(duì)吐魯番文書的研究,唐武周年間(690年前后)和天寶時(shí)期(745年前后)的55年間,銀幣與絲織品之間的兌換率一直是一匹練換十文銀,而銅錢則從一文銀換32文銅貶值到一文銀換46文銅,貶值約30%。很顯然,相對(duì)來說,絹練對(duì)于中西諸方來說具有公認(rèn)的價(jià)值、較高的信譽(yù),因此,它在絲路沿途可以作為硬通貨來使用。

      絲綢交易,帶來了民族的融合

      在早期的絲綢之路上,和親與派遣使者是部落間常見的聯(lián)絡(luò)方式,無論是王昭君、文成公主和親,還是張騫出塞,帶去的是絲綢和物品,帶來的則是血緣上的融合。一個(gè)著名的例子就是傳絲公主。據(jù)《大唐西域記》載:“昔者此國,未知桑蠶,聞東國有之,命使以求。時(shí)東國君秘而不賜,嚴(yán)敕關(guān)防,無令桑蠶種出也。瞿薩旦那王乃卑詞下禮,求婚東國……命使迎婦而誡曰:我國素?zé)o絲綿桑蠶之種,可以持來,自為裳服。女聞其言,密求其種,以桑蠶之子,置帽絮中?!庇谑切Q種就這樣傳入了瞿薩旦那(今新疆和田一帶)。

      同樣是因?yàn)榻z綢的貿(mào)易,大批商人和商隊(duì)的來往也帶來了民族的交往。如絲路上最大的經(jīng)商部落粟特人,長期住在絲綢之路沿途,在碎葉、喀什、和田、敦煌、長安、太原、大同等地形成了巨大的聚落。近年在太原、西安等地發(fā)現(xiàn)的虞弘墓、安迦墓等,都說明了粟特人在各地的散布。由于其長期在外,他們與外族通婚或交往,甚至信仰不同的宗教,因此也帶來了民族融合。

      由海路而來的阿拉伯商人也是如此。他們居住在中國東南沿海的港口,特別是廣州和泉州。廣州一地,在唐末已有幾十萬外商居留,而泉州一地,在宋元時(shí)達(dá)到極盛。13至14世紀(jì)的敘利亞人阿伯爾肥達(dá)、威尼斯旅行家馬可·波羅和摩洛哥旅行家伊本·巴都他等,都在他們的游記中描繪“刺桐港”(泉州港古稱)的繁榮景象,譽(yù)稱它是世界最大的商港之一,甚至出現(xiàn)了“回半城”的狀況。這些居民有著不同的宗教信仰,促使不同的宗教得以傳播,如摩尼教、拜火教、佛教、基督教等。隨著宗教的傳播,民族的融合也變得更為方便。

      養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)從中國傳到歐洲,用了4個(gè)世紀(jì)

      絲綢之路是文化交流之路,這其中包括科技、藝術(shù)、生活等各個(gè)方面。在科技交流方面,自然有地理學(xué)、天文學(xué)、數(shù)學(xué)、物理、化學(xué)、農(nóng)業(yè)、醫(yī)藥、交通等的交流。藝術(shù)的交流也無處不在,如音樂、舞蹈、壁畫、絲綢、金銀器、陶瓷、繪畫等。

      紡織材料的交流則主要體現(xiàn)在毛、絲、棉的傳播上。養(yǎng)羊、羊毛利用和加工的技術(shù)傳播,可能早在青銅時(shí)代已經(jīng)基本完成。但養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)的西傳,則主要在2世紀(jì)至6世紀(jì)之間。2世紀(jì)至3世紀(jì),養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)傳入西北地區(qū),所以在新疆有了蠶繭的發(fā)現(xiàn)和傳絲公主的故事,而養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)傳入中亞,應(yīng)該是在4世紀(jì)至5世紀(jì)間,導(dǎo)致了粟特錦和波斯錦的興盛。養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)傳入小亞細(xì)亞,應(yīng)該是在6世紀(jì)初。據(jù)泰奧法納(750~817年)介紹,在查士丁尼(483~565年)統(tǒng)治期間,一位波斯人曾在拜占庭介紹過有關(guān)蠶蟲的起源問題,這是中國養(yǎng)蠶技術(shù)傳入歐洲的最早記載。棉紡織生產(chǎn)技術(shù)則至遲在唐朝已傳入中國西北,到元代則傳遍中原大地。

      The Silk Road was coined in 1877 by Ferdinand von Richthofen, a German geologist who visited China seven times. The concept has touched off a wide range of studies since then. Many scholars prefer to call the Silk Road as Silk Routes as there are many routes in history thorough which silk trade from China to the west was carried out. The Silk Road does not refer to a single trade route. This was a channel of exchanges connecting China in the east and Europe in the west. The specific routes, appearance and disappearance of these routes, commodities carried through these routes, functions and influences of these commodities are subjects worth further studying and exploring. The ancient Silk Road is a history we must understand while exploring the Road and Belt.

      Multiple Silk Trade Routes

      The Silk Road described by Ferdinand von Richthofen mainly refers to an overland route between Asia and Europe, a route that went through deserts, the Gobi, and oases. Such a trade route diverged and converged before it went into central Asia and then Iran before it reached the Mediterranean Sea.

      The French sinologist ?douard ?mmannuel Chavannes (1865-1918) claimed in 1903 that there existed a maritime silk road between China and Europe. The Silk Road, in his opinion, was composed of a maritime route and an overland route. In 1968, a Japanese scholar also explored the Maritime Silk Road in a book. In China, Chen Yan was the earliest scholar who concerned himself with the study of the Maritime Silk Road in 1980. Chen then published a series of articles further exploring the shipping routes that connected China and countries in other parts of Asia and Europe. Some scholars have suggested the existence of Grassland Silk Road. But this route expects more studies and researches.

      The most influential study about multiples silk trade routes was conducted by the UNESCO from 1988 to 1998. The ten-year project saw five field studies. In 1990, scholars explored the route from Xian to Kashgar in Xinjiang. From 1990 to 1991, experts looked into a maritime silk road from Venice to Nagasaki. In 1991, experts probed the grassland silk route that reached the central Asia. In 1992, experts examined the silk route operated by the nomads through Mongolia. In 1995, experts probed the silk trade route opened by Buddhist disciples that connected China and Nepal.

      Multiple Silk Routes in China

      There were four silk routes across China. The major route started from Changan and Luoyang and went westward through a long corridor west of the Yellow River into Xinjiang. This road thrived during the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The second route went through the north of China. It is known as the Grassland Silk Road. The third route zigzagged through Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet in the southwest of China. The fourth route was the Maritime Silk Road that went south and west from the coastal provinces of eastern China.

      The Earliest Silk Road

      The silk routes responded to the development of civilizations across the world. Studies indicate that silk routes formed and extended through three different periods. The first silk route formed in the bronze era and the early iron era and went westward through the grasslands. The route that went through deserts and oases thrived in the Warring States, the Han and the Tang dynasties. The Maritime Silk Road thrived in the Song, the Yuan and the Ming dynasties. Silk was carried on to the west through grasslands by nomads.

      The Silk Road Blocked inthe Tang

      Over two thousand years ago, two things happened in the west and the east that seriously impacted the Silk Road through the deserts. In the west, the rise of the Rome Empire and the eastward expedition of Alexander the Great changed the map of the world. In the east, Zhang Qian (?-114BC), a diplomat of the Western Han (206BC-8AD), opened up a trade route to the west. A route that went through deserts and connected one oasis with the next took form as Zhang Qian trekked westward. The road was utilized by people such as diplomats, traders and monks in the states along the road. The road was kept open by military forces of the states and the Tang. However, as the Tang forces were defeated in 751 by an Arab army in battle at Talas River near Samarkand, the overland Silk Road was blocked.

      Any Silk in Sunken Ships found in Southeast Asia?

      In the middle of the Tang, the Chinese government gave up the control of the Silk Road and the western region of China fell apart. Meanwhile, the economic center shifted to the south, and ports in southeastern China thrived. The Maritime Silk Road started in 661 when a government office was set up in Guangzhou to administer international trade affairs. From the sunken ships found in the Southeast countries in modern times, a lot of porcelain products from China were salvaged. At the bottom of South Sea No. 1, a Chinese cargo ship of the Southern Song Dynasty that sank on its outbound journey, scientists studied the sediments on the bottom of the ship and found traces of silk. The evidence indicates that the ship carried some silk products in its cargo holds. In the Sui and the Tang Dynasty, ships that sailed out to overseas destinations carried silk as a major product. It was in the Song (960-1279) and the Yuan (1279-1368) dynasties that porcelain replaced silk as the major commodity.

      Silk Found in Sweden

      Silk was the major commodity on the Silk Road zigzagging through deserts and oases. Archaeologists have found silk remains from tombs both in Xinjiang and Pazyryk cemetery. The silk was manufactured in the Warring States period of China. The silk remains found in Gansu and Xinjiang go back to the Han and the Tang dynasties. Chinese silk made in the Tang has been found in Norway and Sweden. Though no silk has been directly found to indicate silk was shipped from China to overseas destination, there is indirect evidence. Buddha sculptures of the 9th century in Southeast Asia feature fabric patterns that look apparently like those made in the Tang Dynasty. Some Buddha sculptures of the 12th and 13th centuries in Indonesia present fabric patterns made in the Song Dynasty.

      Cotton Fabrics Shipped to China

      Cotton-woven fabrics originated in the South-Asian Subcontinent. In Chinas Han (206BC-220AD) and the Western Jin periods (265-316), cotton fabrics were carried to China through the overland Silk Road from the northern India. Excavated from the tombs in Xinjiang that date back to the Han and the Western Jin are some cotton fabrics. In the Tang Dynasty, cotton as a crop was cultivated in Xinjiang. In the Song Dynasty, cotton fabrics were shipped in large quantities to China through the Maritime Silk Road. Books written in the Song and the Yuan mention cotton fabrics imported from the “Western Sea”, a then common epithet for the fabrics made in the South Asian Subcontinent.

      Silk as Currency

      On the silk routes, silk was more than a commodity that changed hands. In some cases, it was a hard currency in trade. In some bid deals, silk was used as currency to buy livestock and slaves. According to ancient documents, a horse could be bought for 15 bolts of silk in Dunhuang and Turpan. In the Tang Dynasty, three kinds of currencies were used: Persian silver coins, copper coins of the Tang, and silk.

      Ethnic Fusion through Silk Trade

      Business people came with caravans to China in early years. Among them were Sogdians in the region of Maracanda (modern Samarkand). Along the silk roads were many settlements of Sogdians. These settlements were in present-day Suyab, Kashgar, Hetian, Dunhuang, Changan, Taiyuan, and Datong. They married outside their tribes and converted to some other religions. Arabs who came to China through the Maritime Silk Road also set up large settlements in China. Especially, Guangzhou and Quanzhou were two large cities where international communities were large toward the end of the Tang. Quanzhou in Fujian was a port city where Arabs formed a large community. These foreigners spread their religions in China.

      Sericulture Traveled Four Centuries to Reach Europe

      The Silk Road was a road that also promoted cultural exchanges and communication. What went through the silk routes included geology, astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, agriculture, medicine, transport skills, music, dance, murals, silk, gold and silver gadgets, porcelain, and painting.

      Sericulture and silk craftsmanship appeared in Xinjiang in the 2nd to 3rd centuries. From Xinjiang, it continued to move westward and prospered in central Asia in the 4th to 5th centuries. It spread to Minor Asia in the early 6th century. According to history, during the rule of Justinian the Great, a Persian talked about the genesis of silkworm in Byzantine. This is the earliest mention of silkworm in European literature.

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