金少策 徐露路 馬克強

大運河又名京杭大運河、南北大運河，始建于公元前486年，包括隋唐大運河、京杭大運河和浙東大運河三部分，總長2700公里。它是中國古代最偉大的水利工程，也是世界上最長的運河，開鑿至今已有2500余年歷史。

大運河北起北京，經(jīng)天津、河北、山東、江蘇、浙江等省市，貫通海河、黃河、淮河、長江、錢塘江五大水系，通過浙東運河直抵東海，是中國東部溝通內(nèi)河、聯(lián)系海港的南北水運交通干線，且兼有灌溉、防洪、排澇之利，更對歷代的政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、軍事和文化發(fā)展、對外交流起到了重要作用。

歷史沿革

公元前486年，吳王夫差為爭霸中原，利用長江三角洲的天然河湖港汊，疏通了由今蘇州經(jīng)無錫至常州北入長江到揚州的“古故水道”，并開鑿邗溝（自揚州向東北，經(jīng)射陽湖到淮安入淮河）。

公元605年，隋煬帝下令開通濟(jì)渠。工程西段自今洛陽西郊引谷、洛二水入黃河;工程東段自榮陽縣汜水鎮(zhèn)東北引黃河水，循汴水（原淮河支流），經(jīng)商丘、宿縣、泗縣入淮。通濟(jì)渠又名汴渠，是漕運的干道。

其后，隋煬帝又開永濟(jì)渠，引黃河支流沁水入今衛(wèi)河至天津，繼溯永定河通今北京。610年繼開江南運河，由今鎮(zhèn)江引江水經(jīng)無錫、蘇州、嘉興至杭州通錢塘江。至此，建成以洛陽為中心，由永濟(jì)渠、通濟(jì)渠、山陽瀆和江南運河連接而成的大運河，南至杭州，北達(dá)北京。

唐時浚河培堤筑岸，以利漕運纖挽，將自晉以來在運河上興建的通航堰埭，相繼改建為既能調(diào)節(jié)運河通航水深、又能使漕船往返通過的單插板門船閘。宋時將運河土岸改建為石駁岸纖道，并改單插板門船閘為有上下閘門的復(fù)式插板門船閘（現(xiàn)代船閘的雛形），使船舶能安全過閘，運河的通過能力也得到了提高。

北宋元豐二年（公元1079年），為解決通濟(jì)渠引黃河水所引起的淤積問題，進(jìn)行了清汴工程，開渠50里，直接引伊洛水入汴河，不再與黃河相連。這一工程兼有引水、蓄水、排泄、治理等多方面的作用。

為改善漕運路線，元朝于1282年動工挖濟(jì)州河，自今濟(jì)寧引洸、汶、泗水為源，向北開河150里接濟(jì)水（相當(dāng)于后來的大清河位置）。濟(jì)州河開通后，漕船可由江淮溯黃河、泗水和濟(jì)州河直達(dá)安山下濟(jì)水。其后，又開會通河，長250里，接通衛(wèi)河。漕船可由濟(jì)州河、會通河、衛(wèi)河，在溯白河至通縣。

1291年至1293年，元朝從今通縣到大都開通惠河，建閘20座。從此，漕船可由通縣入通惠河，直達(dá)今北京城內(nèi)的積水潭。至此，今天的大運河的路線走向初步形成。

明、清兩代均建都北京，都對元朝大運河進(jìn)行了擴(kuò)建。明朝先后在1528—1567年和1595—1605年，自今山東濟(jì)寧南陽鎮(zhèn)以南的南四湖東相繼開河440里，使原經(jīng)沛縣、滁州入黃河的原泗水運河路線（今南四湖西線），改道為經(jīng)夏鎮(zhèn)、韓莊、臺兒莊入黃河的今南四湖東線，即韓莊運河線。

清朝于1681—1688年，在黃河?xùn)|側(cè)，約由今駱馬湖以北至淮陰開中河、皂河近200里，北接韓莊運河，南接今里運河，從而使運河路線完全與黃河河道分開。

1855年，黃河在河南省銅瓦廂決口北徙，在山東省奪大清河入海，大運河全線南北斷航，清朝后期和民國時期，曾幾度倡議治理運河，但均未付諸實施。

新中國成立后，于1953年和1957年興建江陰船閘和楊柳青、宿遷千噸級船閘，開始了對古老大運河的部分恢復(fù)和擴(kuò)建工作。1959年以后，結(jié)合南水北調(diào)工程，重點擴(kuò)建了滁州至長江段400余公里的運河河段，使運河單向年通過能力達(dá)到8000萬噸，并擴(kuò)大了沿岸灌溉面積和排澇面積，確保里下河地區(qū)1500萬畝農(nóng)田和800萬人民生命財產(chǎn)的安全，取得了多方面的效益。

目前，大運河濟(jì)寧以南至杭州河段已建成16座通航梯級，其中大型船閘12座。運河及其沿岸河流、湖泊已節(jié)節(jié)設(shè)閘控制，洪水期調(diào)泄，枯水期補給，江水北調(diào)工程已取得一定成果。濟(jì)寧至杭州段的運河擴(kuò)建續(xù)建工程業(yè)已開始，將進(jìn)一步浚深擴(kuò)寬航道，加建復(fù)線船閘，溝通運河至錢塘江的航道，擴(kuò)大港口吞吐能力。從已建工程效益來看，具有投資少、運量大、成本低、占地少、燃料消耗低的優(yōu)點。

浙江省境內(nèi)錢塘江以東的運河是大運河的延伸入海段——浙東運河，西起杭州市濱江區(qū)西興街道，跨曹娥江，經(jīng)過紹興市，東至寧波市甬江入?？?，全長239公里。

浙東運河是連接陸上絲綢之路和海上絲綢之路的重要紐帶，歷史最早可追溯到春秋時期越國開鑿的山陰故水道。當(dāng)時，范蠡在會稽山北建成山陰大城（今浙江紹興古城），作為越國的活動中心。為了便利交通，范蠡主持疏浚了自山陰城東東郭門至今上虞練塘村的山陰故水道。浙東運河的開鑿，對后世浙江的水利灌溉和全國性的南北航運、水驛、漕運等都起到了重要作用。

浙東運河是有記載的現(xiàn)存兩條先秦古運河之一，至今仍是寧紹平原航運、泄洪、灌溉的主干水道。浙東運河孕育出古越文化：崇尚大禹治水，名士集聚地構(gòu)建了以蘭亭雅集、唐詩之路為高峰的藝術(shù)殿堂。

大文化融通

大運河是世界上最長、最古老的人工水道，也是工業(yè)革命前規(guī)模最大、范圍最廣的工程項目，它促進(jìn)了中國南北物資的交流和領(lǐng)土的統(tǒng)一管轄，反映出中國人民高超的智慧、決心和勇氣，以及東方文明在水利技術(shù)和管理能力方面的杰出成就?？梢哉f，大運河是中國古代人與自然相互順應(yīng)、相互改造、相互成就的產(chǎn)物。

毫不夸張地說，大運河文化是一部囊括了中國社會不同歷史時期最主要的發(fā)展史，其文化也是綜合性質(zhì)的，是中國古代農(nóng)業(yè)創(chuàng)造出來的城市群文化。大運河開鑿出了一個新的大環(huán)境，把若干小的割據(jù)的自然環(huán)境貫通成為一個體系，并轉(zhuǎn)化成人文環(huán)境。它包括新自然環(huán)境、新生態(tài)環(huán)境、新生產(chǎn)環(huán)境、新文化、新物流環(huán)境等，形成了發(fā)達(dá)的“運河社會區(qū)域經(jīng)濟(jì)”，如古代的“南糧北運”“鹽運”通道、現(xiàn)代的“北煤南運”干線、當(dāng)代的防洪灌溉干流。

大運河文化是民族融合的產(chǎn)物，可分為三個層次：高級文化，包括建筑、文學(xué)等;大眾文化，指沿途習(xí)俗、儀式、衣食住行、生活方式等;深層文化，指價值觀取向，即黃河文化延伸出來的那種民族精神，早已滲透在大運河文化深處。

那么，大運河文化作為一種歷史悠久、延綿不斷的民族文化，與中華民族精神同根同脈。運河高級文化是沒落的封建時代的產(chǎn)物，而運河大眾文化則植根于運河深層文化里。運河深層文化更以一種習(xí)俗或生活方式，憑借著理想的地理位置、優(yōu)越的經(jīng)濟(jì)條件、優(yōu)秀的人文環(huán)境;依舊存活于運河民間、運河文化遺址。

大運河駕馭南北、總攬全國，成為歷代王朝大一統(tǒng)局面的政治紐帶，維系著中央集權(quán)。從隋唐政權(quán)北移，直到元明清，大分裂始終未出現(xiàn)，證明了大運河文化的同化作用。

中華民族多元一體文化與大運河文化有著相互推動的關(guān)系。大運河在溝通物質(zhì)交換的同時，大大消除了地域文化的不平衡，以黃河文明為中心，同化融合了多民族的文化差別，也由此把東南文化、嶺南文化、江南文化、齊魯文化、中土文化、江淮文化、黃河文化、燕北文化、西部文化等幾乎全都融合在中國傳統(tǒng)思想悠久的時空里。

大運河文化是“中國漕運實踐中所創(chuàng)造的物質(zhì)財富和精神財富的總和”。中國古代社會的意識形態(tài)以及與之相適應(yīng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)制度和漕運機構(gòu)，使大運河文化成為意識形態(tài)的文化，在古代政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)中是有深刻反映的。

運河生產(chǎn)力還促進(jìn)了運河文化的繁榮，但運河文化具有一定的民族性，并與那個時代的社會主要矛盾相適應(yīng)。比如元代是蒙古游牧民族建立的中央政權(quán)，其不善農(nóng)耕，以運河便漕運江南之米。再如，北宋滅亡，金進(jìn)攻南宋，就以運河漕渡糧草。

無論時代變遷，大運河文化，總隨著社會物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展而發(fā)展，大運河文化始終保持了發(fā)展的連續(xù)性、歷史的繼承性。也正是因為運河生產(chǎn)力發(fā)展的連續(xù)性，決定了其上層建筑發(fā)展的連續(xù)性。

經(jīng)濟(jì)南移

西晉和東晉之間，為躲避戰(zhàn)亂，北方士族帶著錢和生產(chǎn)工具往南方跑路，于是有了“衣冠南渡”的說法。其實南渡的不僅是“衣冠”，還有大量的農(nóng)民跟著去了南方，共同建設(shè)幸福家園。

到了南方后，新品種的種植帶來了糧食的增產(chǎn)、水利工程的建設(shè)，起到了促進(jìn)生產(chǎn)力發(fā)展的作用。相比于戰(zhàn)亂四起、征伐不斷的北方，南方更為安定，被稱為天下糧倉的太湖區(qū)域就是在此時茁壯成長起來的。

為了解決北方糧食緊缺問題，隋文帝開始有了貫通南北運河的構(gòu)想。至隋煬帝，京杭大運河雛形基本完成。大運河的出現(xiàn)，為隋朝以及后來的唐王朝解決了無數(shù)的糧食和賑災(zāi)問題，也為本可能走下坡路的長安城續(xù)寫了一段輝煌歷史。

通過運河河道，促進(jìn)了貿(mào)易和經(jīng)濟(jì)的往來，并且將天下財富和人才源源不斷地輸送到長安，再加上唐朝對西域的開拓，使得長安成為當(dāng)時的世界第一城市。

同時，對于南方來說，市場進(jìn)一步擴(kuò)大后，商貿(mào)業(yè)迎來了爆發(fā)。南方的錦、鏡、銅器、海味、玳瑁、真珠、象牙、沉香、橘子和茶葉等被銷往廣闊的北方，甚至通過絲綢之路被運往更西邊。

唐后期，揚州已經(jīng)是中國造船業(yè)的中心，南昌則是造船基地，唐朝船只的數(shù)量和技術(shù)都達(dá)到了一個前所未有的高度。

北宋時期，稻米技術(shù)從越南傳入了中國，這項技術(shù)進(jìn)步一定程度上也改變了中國。隨著水利的修繕和農(nóng)耕技術(shù)的發(fā)展，江南地區(qū)在全國的農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)地位進(jìn)一步被加強。

手工業(yè)生產(chǎn)、礦冶業(yè)、紡織業(yè)等領(lǐng)域，南方都遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)領(lǐng)先北方。作為中國標(biāo)志性特產(chǎn)的瓷器行業(yè)，南方也已趕上北方。浙江龍泉盛產(chǎn)青瓷，有“千峰翠色”的雅號;而江西新平則是全國的產(chǎn)瓷中心，宋真宗景德年間在此建了個官窯，便是大名鼎鼎的景德鎮(zhèn)。

到了南宋，宋高宗移都杭州，政治中心和經(jīng)濟(jì)重心進(jìn)一步來到了東南沿海地區(qū)，自此，中國經(jīng)濟(jì)重心的南移徹底完成。

元朝雖建都北京，但對南方經(jīng)濟(jì)的依賴更為嚴(yán)重，利用之前隋唐大運河的部分河段，重點打通了山東區(qū)域，形成了現(xiàn)今的京杭大運河。它總共可分為七段，即：北京—通州;通州—天津;天津—臨清;臨清—臺兒莊;臺兒莊—淮陰;淮陰—揚州;鎮(zhèn)江—杭州。

因此，宋代以后，長江流域特別是東南部地區(qū)學(xué)校教育興旺發(fā)達(dá)，而且總體水平明顯高于其他地區(qū)，同時具有明顯的示范和表率作用。

經(jīng)濟(jì)重心南移直接促進(jìn)了長江流域商品經(jīng)濟(jì)的進(jìn)一步發(fā)展與商品化程度的提高，從而催生了新的生產(chǎn)方式首先在江浙一帶萌芽并進(jìn)一步發(fā)展。

交流窗口

明清時期的京杭大運河是南北交通的大動脈，不僅促進(jìn)了南北物資的交流和沿線城鎮(zhèn)聚落的興起，也便利了人員的往來，在中外文化交流中發(fā)揮著重要的作用，一些外國使節(jié)、傳教士、旅行者等多取道于此。

世界著名旅行家馬可 · 波羅是第一個向歐洲介紹東方古國的人，他記錄下自己在運河城市的游歷見聞，在歐洲及世界引發(fā)了巨大反響。繼他之后，有更多外國人途經(jīng)“大運河”訪問中國各地。

1417年（明永樂15年），菲律賓蘇祿群島上的東王巴都葛叭哈刺，率領(lǐng)340多人到中國進(jìn)行訪問。他們由福建泉州登陸后到達(dá)杭州，又沿京杭大運河歷時兩個半月來到北京。歸國途中，東王不幸染上重傷寒于德州不治而亡，從此中國的土地上就有了一座外國國王的陵墓。

明萬歷年間，意大利傳教士利瑪竇曾在運河漂流，而讓他更感興趣的便是運河漕運，他詳細(xì)記載了關(guān)于運河的所見所聞：“……中國人喜歡用磚而不用石，供皇宮所用的磚可能是由大船從一千五百英里之外運來的。僅是為此就使用了很多船只，日夜不斷運行………”

清乾隆五十八年（1793），大英帝國以給乾隆皇帝祝壽的名義派遣龐大代表團(tuán)出使中國，這是華夏帝國和大英帝國的第一次正式接觸。英國人在北京通州登船，開始了為期33天的運河南下之旅。

運河沿線的水利工程、城鎮(zhèn)發(fā)展和風(fēng)土人情，給外國人留下了深刻的印象，這在他們的作品中多有體現(xiàn)。他們的觀察與描述無疑有助于加深我們對明清京杭大運河的認(rèn)識。

15世紀(jì)末期由朝鮮人崔溥寫成的《源海錄》，是明代第一個行經(jīng)運河全程的朝鮮人的記錄，生動形象地展示了當(dāng)時大運河的交通情形和沿岸風(fēng)貌，富有史料研究和學(xué)術(shù)價值。

明中后期的運河沿岸城鎮(zhèn)是當(dāng)時中國商品經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會文化最為發(fā)達(dá)的地區(qū)，運河的經(jīng)濟(jì)文化往來也是最為繁忙興盛的。崔溥一行經(jīng)過運河，留下了對運河經(jīng)濟(jì)文化交流和運河沿岸城鎮(zhèn)面貌系統(tǒng)而完整的描述。崔溥這樣描述杭州：“東南一都會，接屋連廊，連衽成帷，市積金銀，人擁錦繡，蠻檣海舶，櫛立街衢，酒簾歌模，咫尺相望，四時有不謝之花，八節(jié)有常綠之景，真所謂別作天地也。”

策彥周良（1501—1579），號怡齋，是日本京都天龍寺妙智院高僧。他博學(xué)多才，通曉漢文，于明嘉靖十八年（1539年）與嘉靖二十六年（1547年）先后兩次作為日本遣明使副使與正使奉派入明。他在中國逗留5年多，多次沿著運河北上與南下。策彥周良把兩次來華的經(jīng)歷寫成記事性的詩文集《初渡集》《再渡集》《入明記》，成為中日關(guān)系史上的重要文獻(xiàn)。

運河的世界

京杭大運河

京杭大運河是世界上里程最長、工程最大的古代運河，也是最古老的運河之一，與長城、坎兒井并稱為中國古代的三項偉大工程，并且使用至今，是中國古代勞動人民創(chuàng)造的一項偉大工程，是中國文化地位的象征之一。

春秋時吳國為伐齊國而開鑿，隋朝大幅度擴(kuò)修并貫通至都城洛陽且連涿郡，元朝翻修時棄洛陽而取直至北京。

大運河南起余杭（今杭州），北到涿郡（今北京），途經(jīng)今浙江、江蘇、山東、河北四省及天津、北京兩市，貫通海河、黃河、淮河、長江、錢塘江五大水系，全長約1794公里。運河對中國南北地區(qū)之間的經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化發(fā)展與交流，特別是對沿線地區(qū)工農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展起了巨大作用。

大運河的延伸入海段——浙東運河，西起杭州市濱江區(qū)西興街道，跨曹娥江，經(jīng)過紹興市，東至寧波市甬江入海口，全長239公里。浙東運河是有記載的現(xiàn)存兩條先秦東古運河之一，至今仍是寧紹平原航運、泄洪、灌溉的主干水道。

蘇伊士運河

蘇伊士運河于1869年修筑通航，在埃及貫通蘇伊士地峽，連接地中海與紅海，提供從歐洲至印度洋和西太平洋最近的航線。它是世界使用最頻繁的航線之一，也是亞洲與非洲的交界線，是亞洲與非洲人民來往的主要通道。北起塞得港南至蘇伊士城，長190公里，在塞得港北面掘道入地中海至蘇伊士的南面。

巴拿馬運河

1914年通航的巴拿馬運河，位于中美洲的巴拿馬，橫穿巴拿馬地峽，連接太平洋和大西洋，是重要的航運要道，是被譽為世界七大工程奇跡之一的“世界橋梁”。巴拿馬運河由巴拿馬共和國擁有和管理，屬于水閘式運河。其長度，從一側(cè)的海岸線到另一側(cè)海岸線約為65公里，而由大西洋（更確切地說是加勒比海）的深水處至太平洋的深水處約為82公里，最寬的地方達(dá)304米，最窄的地方也有152米。它是南美洲和北美洲的分界線。

伊利運河

1825年建成通航的伊利運河全長為584公里，整條運河的寬度為12米、深度為1.2米。運河總共有83個水閘，最高可以行駛排水量75噸的平底駁船。伊利運河是第一條提供美國東海岸至西部內(nèi)陸的快速運輸通道。伊利運河不只加快運輸?shù)乃俣?，也將沿岸地區(qū)與內(nèi)陸地區(qū)的運輸成本減少了95%?？旖莸倪\河交通使得紐約州西部更便于到達(dá)，因此也促進(jìn)了美國中西部人口的快速成長。

阿爾貝特運河

阿爾貝特運河是比利時東北部運河。西起馬斯河上的列日，東抵斯海爾德河上的安特衛(wèi)普，長約130公里。最狹處24米，水最淺為5米。1930年始建，1939年完成?？赏ê?000噸級船只，有6座三廂船閘，在列日的蒙新有一座單廂船閘，借此連接安特衛(wèi)普和列日兩個重要工業(yè)區(qū)。

莫斯科運河

莫斯科運河修建于1932年，起于杜布納鎮(zhèn)附近的伊萬科夫水庫，在距離莫斯科河河口190公里的圖希諾把后者連接起來。在完成了通往伏爾加河的航道后，于1937年5月1日竣工。1947年前稱“莫斯科-伏爾加河運河”，跨越莫斯科、特維爾兩州，全長128公里，河寬85米，水深可通航載重5000噸的船只。運河的建成令莫斯科成為“五海之港”，可以乘船到里海、波羅的海、白海、黑海和亞速海。除了航運、旅游用途，運河也為莫斯科帶來接近一半的供水。

伏爾加河—頓河運河

伏爾加河—頓河運河是連接伏爾加河下游與頓河最終注入亞速海的運河。它位于俄羅斯西部的伏爾加格勒州。1948年開始興建，1952年竣工。起于頓河齊姆良斯克水庫東岸的卡拉奇，止于伏爾加格勒正南方的紅軍村，長101公里，沿途設(shè)有13個船閘，到窩瓦河的落差為88米，到頓河的落差為44米。有卡爾波夫卡、別列斯拉夫卡和瓦爾瓦羅夫卡3個水庫，共長45公里。可通行大型內(nèi)河船只及小型海輪，打開了窩瓦河—卡馬河—海的通海航道。

基爾運河

基爾運河又名北?！_的海運河，是溝通北海與波羅的海的重要水道。位于德國北部的基爾運河，西南起于易北河口的布倫斯比特爾科克港，東北至于基爾灣的霍爾特瑙港，橫貫日德蘭半島，全長53.3海里 ，是連接北海和波羅的海的重要航道，故又名“北海-波羅的海運河”。基爾運河的開通極大地縮短了北海與波羅的海之間的航程，比繞道厄勒海峽-卡特加特海峽—斯卡格拉克海峽減少了370海里。德國修建這條運河，原為避免軍艦繞道丹麥半島航行，建成后，北海到波羅的海的航程縮短了756公里之多。在商業(yè)上，現(xiàn)為北海與波羅的海之間安全、便捷和經(jīng)濟(jì)的水道。1907年開始對河床進(jìn)行拓寬和加深工程，于1914年第一次世界大戰(zhàn)爆發(fā)前幾周完成，能通行大型艦船。

約塔運河

約塔運河是瑞典約塔蘭的運河，于19世紀(jì)初建造。以這條運河為主體的水道途經(jīng)維納恩湖和韋特恩湖，延伸至約塔河和特羅爾海特運河，把卡特加特海峽城市哥德堡和波羅的海城市南雪平連接起來。 運河本身長190.5公里，其中87.3公里為挖掘和爆破而成，最深處約3公里。共有58個水閘，能容納長32米、寬7米、吃水2.8米的船只。

曼徹斯特運河

曼徹斯特運河是英國英格蘭西北部的運河。1887年開始修鑿，1894年通航。由默西河和伊爾韋爾河供水。該運河從東哈姆到曼徹斯特，長58公里，寬14至24米，深約9米，有5個船閘，使大型遠(yuǎn)洋輪可以進(jìn)入曼徹斯特。

The Grand Canal in China

By Liu Fanli

The Grand Canal of China， alternatively known as the Jing （Beijing）-Hang （Hangzhou） Grand Canal or the South-North Grand Canal， was first dug in the year 486 BC. Running for over 2，700 kilometers， it consists of three parts： the Sui-Tang Grand Canal， the Jing-Hang Grand Canal and the Eastern Zhejiang （Zhedong） Canal. The canal is the worlds longest constructed waterway， and the largest and most extensive water conservancy project in ancient China.

Starting from Beijing in the north， it passes through the city of Tianjin and the provinces of Hebei， Shandong， Jiangsu and Zhejiang before ending in the city of Hangzhou in the south， connecting the Haihe River， the Yellow River， the Huaihe River， the Yangtze River and the Qiantang River. In the east， the canal reaches the East China Sea via the Eastern Zhejiang Canal. The Grand Canal was a major waterway connecting East China with the interior river system， and linking the south with the north. It also served the functions of irrigation， flood control and drainage， and has played an important role in the political， economic， military and cultural development and foreign exchanges of successive dynasties.

In 486 BC， Fu Chai （？-473 BC）， king of the State of Wu （ca. 12th century-473 BC）， dredged the ancient waterway passing from Suzhou to Yangzhou via Wuxi and Changzhou， to realize his military ambition of conquering the Central Plains. Meanwhile， work began on the construction of a canal， which later was known as Han Gou （literally “Han Conduit” or Han Canal）， from the south of Yangzhou to the north of Huaian in Jiangsu）.

Over a thousand years later， in the year 605， Emperor Yang （569-618） of the Sui dynasty （581-618） ordered the Tongji Canal to be dug. The canal， alternatively known as the Bian Canal， was the main waterway for Caoyun （tribute grain transport）. He then ordered the opening of the Yongji Canal， which was able to connect with the cities of present-day Tianjin and Beijing in the north. In 610， the Jiangnan Canal was built， which started from Zhenjiang in Jiangsu， via Wuxi， Suzhou， before reaching Jiaxing and Hangzhou in Zhejiang and ultimately the Qiantang River. By then， a canal system centered around Luoyang and consisted of the Yongji Canal， the Tongji Canal， the Han Canal and the Jiangnan Canal had been in place， extending to Hangzhou in the south and Beijing in the north.

The Tang dynasty （618-907） mainly improved canal lock efficiency， apart from minor changes made to the canal to cut down on travel time， but there were no fundamental differences between the Sui Grand Canal and the Tang Grand Canal. During the Song dynasty （960-1279）， a double-gate system known as the pound lock was invented， which allowed boats to pass through safely， and shipping capacity was increased as well.

To improve the Caoyun system， the Yuan （1206-1368） government started to dig the Jizhou Canal and later the Huitong Canal， which enabled Caoyun boats to reach Tongxian county near the capital Beijing. From 1291 to 1293， the Yuan government built the Tonghui Canal， linking Tongxian county directly with the center of Beijing. The general shape of the Grand Canal as we know today took shape at that time.

The Ming （1368-1644） and Qing （1616-1911） dynasties both expanded the Grand Canal. Then in 1855， heaving flooding of the Yellow River changed its course and severed the Grand Canal at Shandong province. From then on， the canal largely fell into disrepair despite calls to renovate it in late-Qing and during the Republican period （1912-1949）.? After the founding of the Peoples Republic of China， efforts have been continuously made to restore and expand the Grand Canal. For example， the project to expand and reconstruct the Jining-Hangzhou section has begun， which when completed will see shipping lanes further widened through dredging. At the same time， it will also facilitate traveling from the Grand Canal to the Qiantang River and expand the port handling capacity.

With a total length of 239 kilometers， the extension section of the Grand Canal into the sea， known as the Eastern Zhejiang Canal， starts from Xixing street， Binjiang district of Hangzhou in the west， crosses the Caoe River， passes through Shaoxing and ends at the mouth of Yongjiang River， Ningbo in the east. As an important link between the land-based Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road， its history can be traced to the Ancient Shanyin Canal dug by the State of Yue （2032-222 BC） during the Spring and Autumn Period （770-476 BC）. The Eastern Zhejiang Canal is one of the only two extant canals on record from the pre-Qin （before 221 BC） period， and is still the main waterway for navigation， flood discharge and irrigation in the Ningbo-Shaoxing Plains.

As the worlds longest and oldest man-made waterway， and the worlds largest and most extensive civil engineering project prior to the Industrial Revolution， the Grand Canal greatly promoted Chinas north-south exchanges， consolidated its political unification and fostered its ethnic unity， on top of the apparent transportation， economic and social benefits it had brought. The canal is a show of the Chinese peoples wisdom， determination and courage， as well as an eastern civilizations outstanding achievements in the fields of water conservancy and water management. It can be said that the Grand Canal is the result of mutual adaptation and mutual transformation between ancient Chinese people and nature that enabled their mutual success.

A major transportation artery between the north and the south， especially during the Ming and Qing periods， the Grand Canal played a significant role in Chinas cultural exchanges with foreign countries as well. Some foreign envoys， missionaries and travelers frequently took the route.

In the late 1200s， Marco Polo， one of the very first foreign travelers to introduce China to Europe， recorded many of his trips to the canal cities. Indeed， of those who later came to China， a large number followed his steps.

A Sulu King named Paduka Pahala sailed from the Philippines to Imperial China in 1417. Their 340-strong delegation arrived in Hangzhou after landing in Quanzhou， Fujian province. They then journeyed northward for two and half months along the Grand Canal before reaching Beijing. His delegation was said to have made a strong impression on the Chinese emperor， who made him the most important guest at that time. Unfortunately， he contracted some disease and died in Dezhou， Shandong province， on his way back home. He was buried at the place and a monument was built for him.

In the 16th century， the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci used to travel on the Grand Canal， and he seemed to be more interested in its transportation： … the Chinese appear to prefer bricks over stones， and the bricks for the imperial palace are most likely brought in on ships some 1，500 miles away， for which many ships have worked day and night …

Then in 1793， that infamous Macartney mission from the British Empire， aimed to facilitate British trade with the Qing. The British delegation boarded their ships in Tongzhou， Beijing after an audience with the emperor （Emperor Qianlong） and followed the Grand Canal for 33 days all the way to Hangzhou.

The water conservancy projects， the towns and villages along the canal as well as the local customs left a deep impression on many foreigners， which have been reflected in their works. Their observations and descriptions can undoubtedly help deepen our understanding of the Grand Canal.

One such example is Choe Pu （1454-1504）， a Korean official known for his travel diary in Ming China， after he survived a shipwreck near the coast of Zhejiang. Piao Hai Lu （or A Record of Drifting Across the Sea）， as his diary was titled， recorded in detail the transportation of the Grand Canal and the social customs along the way.

Another is Sakugen Shūryō （1501-1579）， a Japanese Zen Buddhist monk， a poet and diplomat in the Muromachi period. He was the vice envoy and the chief envoy of the Japanese missions in 1539 and 1547 to the Chinese imperial court in Beijing. During his time in China， he has traveled multiple times along the Grand Canal， and he put his experiences into several poem collections， such as Ru Ming Ji （Record of My Journey to Ming China）， which have become important documents in the history of Sino-Japanese relations.

A World of Canals

The Jing-Hang Grand Canal

One of the oldest canals， the Jing-Hang Grand Canal is the longest and largest ancient canal in the world. Together with the Great Wall and the Karez， it is known as the three great projects of ancient China.

First dug by the State of Wu （ca. 12th century-473 BC） in the Spring and Autumn Period to facilitate its attack on the State of Qi （1046-221 BC）， it was greatly expanded in the Sui dynasty， extended to the capital of Luoyang and even connected to Zhuojun （present-day Beijing）. In the Yuan dynasty， when the long-jammed canal was restored and rebuilt， instead of Luoyang， Beijing， capital of Yuan， was chosen as the northern point of the canal.

The Grand Canal runs from Yuhang （present-day Hangzhou） in the south to Zhuojun （present-day Beijing） in the north， passing through the provinces of Zhejiang， Jiangsu， Shandong， Hebei and the municipalities of Tianjin and Beijing. With a total length of about 1797 kilometers， it cuts across the Haihe River， the Yellow River， the Huaihe River， the Yangtze River and the Qiantang River. Throughout history， the Grand Canal has played a significant role in the economic and cultural development， especially the industrial and agricultural economic development， as well as exchanges between northern and southern China.

The extension section of the Grand Canal into the sea， known as the Eastern Zhejiang Canal， starts from Xixing street， Binjiang district of Hangzhou in the west， crosses the Caoe River， passes through Shaoxing and ends at the mouth of Yongjiang River， Ningbo in the east， with a total length of 239 kilometers. The Eastern Zhejiang Canal is one of the only two extant canals on record from the pre-Qin period， and is still the main waterway for navigation， flood discharge and irrigation in the Ningbo-Shaoxing Plains.

The Suez Canal

Officially opened in 1869， the Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway running north to south across the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt to connect the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal provides the shortest maritime route between Europe and the lands lying around the Indian and western Pacific oceans， and it is one of the worlds busiest shipping lanes. Separating Africa from the Asian continent， the canal is one of the most important waterways for the exchanges between people in the two continents.? ?From Port Said in the north， dug into the Mediterranean Sea， to the city of Suez in the south， the canal runs a length of about 190 kilometers.

The Panama Canal

Opened in 1914， the Panama Canal an artificial waterway in Panama that cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. As an important shipping conduit， the canal is one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. It is a lock-type canal， owned and administered by the Republic of Panama. The length of the Panama Canal from shoreline to shoreline is about 65 kilometers and from deep water in the Atlantic （more specifically， the Caribbean Sea） to deep water in the Pacific is about 82 kilometers. The wider part of the canal can reach 304 meters， while its narrowest part stands at 152 meters. The Panama Canal also divides the North America from the South America.

The Erie Canal

Completed in 1825， the Erie Canal runs for 584 kilometers， 12 meters in width and 1.2 meters in depth. With a total of 83 locks， the canal could handle barges with a maximum displacement of 75 tons. It was the first rapid transportation system between the East Coast of the United States and the western interior that did not require portage， much faster than the animal-pulled trailers most commonly used at the time. As well as making traffic faster， the canal also helped cut transportation costs between coastal areas and the interior areas by 95%. Rapid canal traffic made the western part of New York state more accessible， thus contributing to rapid population growth in the Midwest.

The Albert Canal

The Albert Canal is a canal located in northeastern Belgium， which connects the city of Liège on the Meuse River in the west with the city of Antwerp on the Scheldt River in the east. The canal runs a total length of about 130 kilometers， and was built between 1930 and 1930， with a minimum bottom width of 24 meters and a minimum depth of 5 meters. It could be navigated by 2，000-ton vessels， and has six sets of triple locks and one single lock at Monsin （Liège）.

The Moscow Canal

Built between 1932 and May 1， 1937， the Moscow Canal， named the Moskva-Volga Canal until 1947， is a canal in Russia that starts from the Volga River in the town of Dubna， just upstream of the dam of the Ivankovo Reservoir and connects to Tushino （an area in the northwest of Moscow） 190 kilometers away from the mouth of the Moskva River. Crossing the oblasts （states） of Moscow and Tver， it runs 128 kilometers and is 85 meters wide， navigable for ships up to 5，000 tons. The canal has made Moscow the “port of the five seas” as it created access to five seas： the White Sea， Baltic Sea， Caspian Sea， Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. Apart from transportation and recreation， the canal provides for about half of Moscows water consumption.

The Volga-Don Canal

Connecting the lower Volga and the lower Don， before ultimately flowing into the Sea of Azov， the Volga-Don Canal is in Russias oblast （state） of Volgograd. Construction on the canal began in 1948 and officially opened in 1952. The canal starts from Kalach-na-Donu， on the eastern shore of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir， for 101 kilometers to Krasnoarmeysk on the Volga immediately south of Volgograd. There are 13 locks along its route， which drops 88 meters to the Volga and 44 meters to the Don. Three reservoirs — Karpovka， Bereslavka， and Varvarovka — lie along its path and occupy 45 kilometers of its length. The canal， which can take the largest rivercraft and smaller seagoing ships， opened up the upper Volga， Kama River， and Urals regions to oceanic commerce via the Don River.

The Kiel Canal

The Kiel Canal， also known as the North Sea-Baltic Sea Canal， is a 98-kilometer-long （53.3 nautical miles） canal in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The canal links the North Sea at Brunsbüttelkoog at the mouth of the Elbe River in the southwest with the Baltic Sea at Kiel-Holtenau in the northeast， cutting right across the Jutland Peninsula. The construction of the Kiel Canal saves the journey between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea by about 370 nautical miles than by going around the Jutland Peninsula. The canal was originally dug by the Germans to help the Germans warships avoid sailing around the Jutland Peninsula. Work to widen and deepen the riverbed began in 1907 and was completed in 1914， a few weeks before the outbreak of World War I， to accommodate large ships. Commercially， it is now a safe， convenient and economical waterway between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.

The G?ta Canal

The G?ta Canal is a Swedish canal built in the early 19th century. It travels through the lakes of V?nern and V?ttern from Gothenburg on the west coast to S?derk?ping on the Baltic Sea via. The canal is 190 kilometers long， of which 87 kilometers were dug or blasted. With 58 locks， it can accommodate ships of 32 meters long and 7 meters wide with a draft of 2.8 meters.

The Manchester Ship Canal

The Manchester Ship Canal is a canal in the northwest of England. The construction of the canal began in 1887 and official navigation started in 1894. Fed by the Mersey and Irwell rivers， the canal runs from Eastham to Manchester， 58 kilometers in length， 14 to 24 meters in width and about 9 meters in depth. With five locks， the canal allows large ocean liners to enter the Manchester area.