王沛 陳宇杰 范春霞
摘要元非人化是指內(nèi)群體持有的外群體對(duì)本群體非人化的信念。醫(yī)患互動(dòng)中,患者因醫(yī)方對(duì)其非人化而產(chǎn)生元非人化信念(包括微妙元非人化信念和公然元非人化信念),此舉容易引發(fā)針對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。在遭受微妙非人化后,自尊水平越高的患者攻擊傾向會(huì)有所增強(qiáng);與此同時(shí),患者的公然元非人化信念在影響社會(huì)身份威脅、互換意愿以及對(duì)醫(yī)方的非人化信念后,容易導(dǎo)致對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。通過樹立醫(yī)務(wù)人員人性形象、提高患者人性化體驗(yàn)、加強(qiáng)醫(yī)務(wù)人員和患者的積極人性化接觸,同時(shí)對(duì)患者進(jìn)行積極的心理調(diào)適,可以抑制患者的元非人化信念對(duì)攻擊傾向的激發(fā),減少潛在的醫(yī)患失諧。
關(guān)鍵詞醫(yī)患互動(dòng);元非人化;攻擊傾向;公然元非人化;微妙元非人化
分類號(hào)B849
DOI: 10.16842/j.cnki.issn2095-5588.2022.04.001
1引言
醫(yī)患關(guān)系對(duì)于醫(yī)療過程有著重要影響,和諧的醫(yī)患關(guān)系可以促進(jìn)醫(yī)療活動(dòng)順利有效地進(jìn)行。近些年來,我國(guó)的醫(yī)患關(guān)系每況愈下(Sun et al., 2017),帶來了許多不良影響(孫連榮, 王沛, 2019), 不但使得醫(yī)患糾紛事件頻發(fā)(吳昊坦, 2017),甚至造成醫(yī)患間極端的沖突激增(賈曉莉等, 2014)。其中,患者的攻擊傾向乃至攻擊行為對(duì)醫(yī)患關(guān)系的影響尤為嚴(yán)重?;颊呤┲卺t(yī)務(wù)人員的身體和言語攻擊(Franz et al., 2010),不但不利于護(hù)理和治療,而且還使醫(yī)患關(guān)系嚴(yán)重失諧(Di Martino, 2003)。因此,探究患者對(duì)醫(yī)方攻擊傾向的影響因素,對(duì)于構(gòu)建和諧醫(yī)患關(guān)系具有重要意義。
醫(yī)療過程中,由于遭受醫(yī)方非人化所產(chǎn)生的元非人化信念是影響患者攻擊傾向的關(guān)鍵因素。元非人化(meta-dehumanization)是指內(nèi)群體持有外群體將該群體非人化的信念(Kteily et al., 2016; Hodson et al., 2014),包括公然元非人化以及微妙元非人化兩大類型,均嚴(yán)重影響內(nèi)群體對(duì)外群體的攻擊性態(tài)度和暴力行為傾向(Bruneau, 2016; Kteily et al., 2016; Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b; Zhang et al., 2017)。在醫(yī)患互動(dòng)過程中,患者常常遭受醫(yī)方的非人化言行(Haque & Waytz, 2012),加之患者在醫(yī)患關(guān)系中長(zhǎng)期處于劣勢(shì)地位(吳昊坦, 2017),使得他們極易產(chǎn)生元非人化信念(Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b),并最終誘發(fā)對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。
2患者的元非人化信念
在醫(yī)療實(shí)踐中,患者通常會(huì)因受到刻板印象、偏見與歧視等消極體驗(yàn)而出現(xiàn)身份認(rèn)同困難(徐巖, 2017),常常處于身體、自我和身份三者的糾結(jié)關(guān)系之中(涂炯,鐘就娣, 2017)?;颊呱『罂释撾x患者身份,努力從疾病中恢復(fù),回到正常人的生活之中。然而,醫(yī)生可能會(huì)以去人性化的方式對(duì)待患者(曹錦亞, 魏鏡, 2015;Balfe, 2016;De Zulveta, 2013;Lee, 2015;Lebowitz & Ahn, 2016)。
元非人化是在元知覺(meta-perception)、元刻板印象(meta-stereotype)和非人化理論的基礎(chǔ)上提出的。元知覺是指?jìng)€(gè)體關(guān)于他人對(duì)其或其所屬群體所持的信念(Elsaadawy, 2018; Ohtsubo et al., 2009),通常是消極甚至是錯(cuò)誤的(Bellmore & Cillessen, 2003; Frey & Tropp, 2006)。作為特殊的元知覺,元刻板印象是指?jìng)€(gè)體關(guān)于外群體成員對(duì)其所屬群體所持的刻板印象的信念(Finkelstein et al., 2015)、 尤其是消極的刻板印象(Owuamalam et al., 2013)。非人化是指對(duì)他人人性特征感知的減少(楊文琪等, 2015)。如果內(nèi)群體對(duì)外群體持有非人化信念(Bruneau et al., 2018),將會(huì)導(dǎo)致對(duì)外群體的攻擊(Kteily et al., 2015)。與此同時(shí),遭到外群體的非人化的內(nèi)群體會(huì)形成非人化的元知覺(Bastian & Haslam, 2010; Bastian & Haslam, 2011)。Kteily等人(2016)將這種非人化的元知覺定義為元非人化,并且將之進(jìn)一步界分為兩大類型:一是公然元非人化,指內(nèi)群體成員持有外群體成員將內(nèi)群體成員故意、公開、明目張膽的非人化的信念(Kteily et al., 2016);二是微妙元非人化,指內(nèi)群體成員持有外群體成員將內(nèi)群體成員輕微的、不經(jīng)意的非人化的信念(Zhang et al., 2017)。
元非人化信念是在遭受非人化后產(chǎn)生的。那么,在醫(yī)患互動(dòng)中,是否存在元非人化信念呢?有研究表明,大量患者報(bào)告在牙科診所就診期間體驗(yàn)到了非人化對(duì)待(Raja et al., 2015);精神病患者群體更易受到非人化、污名化,普遍會(huì)體驗(yàn)到元非人化(Fontesse et al., 2019)。因此,在醫(yī)患互動(dòng)中,患者群體中會(huì)存在元非人化信念(Demoulin et al., 2021)。這是因?yàn)椋旱谝?,醫(yī)患情景中,醫(yī)方常常將患者非人化,其非人化以公然或者微妙的形式體現(xiàn)(Adams et al., 2017; Raja et al., 2015)。其中,公然非人化表現(xiàn)為醫(yī)方像管理囚犯一樣管理患者,把患者的名字記成數(shù)字、限制他們的活動(dòng)(Balfe, 2016),以疾病或床號(hào)稱呼患者(曹錦亞, 魏鏡, 2015),把患者當(dāng)作已破損、急需修復(fù)的零部件等。微妙非人化表現(xiàn)為醫(yī)方對(duì)患者人性關(guān)懷的缺失(Fontesse et al., 2019)。例如,對(duì)患者的需求視而不見,降低對(duì)他們的共情(De Zulveta, 2013),甚至弱化對(duì)患者人性特征的感知,將他們視作物體(Lee, 2015),把患者的癥狀比作機(jī)械故障而非人類的主觀心理體驗(yàn)(Lebowitz & Ahn, 2016)。第二,患者群體中普遍存在對(duì)醫(yī)方的消極元知覺(Légaré et al., 2012; Turcotte et al.,2019)。綜上所述,由于常常遭受醫(yī)方的非人化以及本身持有對(duì)醫(yī)方的消極元知覺,患者極易形成對(duì)醫(yī)方的元非人化信念。如果患者感知到醫(yī)方對(duì)他們公然非人化,他們將形成公然元非人化信念;如果患者感知到醫(yī)方對(duì)他們微妙非人化,他們將形成微妙元非人化信念。F8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB
3患者的元非人化信念引發(fā)攻擊傾向
當(dāng)遭受醫(yī)方非人化從而形成公然或微妙元非人化信念后,患者是否為了抵御痛苦而采取過激行動(dòng)呢?來自一般群體的研究證據(jù)表明:內(nèi)群體成員的元非人化信念將導(dǎo)致對(duì)外群體成員的攻擊傾向(Andrighetto et al., 2016)。其中,公然元非人化信念會(huì)激發(fā)對(duì)外群體極端的攻擊傾向(Kteily, Bruneau, 2017a)。美國(guó)人所持有的對(duì)阿拉伯人的公然元非人化信念,導(dǎo)致他們對(duì)阿拉伯人的攻擊性態(tài)度和暴力行為,包括敵視、暴力轟炸以及攻擊等(Kteily et al., 2016)。優(yōu)勢(shì)群體的公然元非人化信念導(dǎo)致攻擊傾向,劣勢(shì)群體的公然元非人化信念同樣導(dǎo)致攻擊傾向(Hodson et al., 2014; Kteily & Bruneau, 2017a)。例如,低地位、劣勢(shì)的拉美人和穆斯林所持有的對(duì)特朗普以及美國(guó)共和黨的公然元非人化信念致使對(duì)特朗普以及美國(guó)共和黨的情感敵意甚至暴力傾向(Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b)。另外,個(gè)體遭受微妙非人化而產(chǎn)生微妙元非人化信念(Bastian & Haslam, 2011)也會(huì)導(dǎo)致對(duì)外群體的攻擊傾向(Zhang et al., 2017; Andrighetto et al., 2016)。在企業(yè)管理中,持有微妙非人化信念的員工表現(xiàn)出對(duì)組織攻擊性的態(tài)度(Caesens et al., 2017)。那么,患者群體的微妙或者公然元非人化信念是否可能導(dǎo)致對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向呢?
正如上文所說,患者群體的微妙或者公然元非人化信念也極有可能發(fā)展為對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。這是基于:第一,患者在時(shí)間、經(jīng)濟(jì)、地位上處于劣勢(shì)或者被動(dòng)狀態(tài)(吳昊坦, 2017);第二,元感知(元知覺、元刻板印象、元非人化)危害群際關(guān)系(OBrien et al., 2018; Vorauer et al., 1998; Hodson et al., 2014)。處于低地位的劣勢(shì)群體關(guān)于別人對(duì)自己的看法很敏感(Gomez, 2002),而且劣勢(shì)群體比優(yōu)勢(shì)群體所持的元非人化信念反應(yīng)更為極端,所以患者形成的元非人化信念往往會(huì)導(dǎo)致消極反應(yīng),并造成特別有害的影響(Van et al., 2008; Kteily et al., 2016)。由于非人化的遭遇極為痛苦,還會(huì)導(dǎo)致個(gè)體認(rèn)知靈活程度降低、羞恥感和痛苦情緒升高(Zhang et al., 2017),甚至造成對(duì)非人化的施害者——醫(yī)方的報(bào)復(fù)性非人化,因此持有元非人化信念的患者將最終產(chǎn)生對(duì)醫(yī)方攻擊的態(tài)度和報(bào)復(fù)的行為傾向,進(jìn)而造成醫(yī)患關(guān)系破裂和醫(yī)患失諧不斷升級(jí)。
4患者元非人化信念影響攻擊傾向的作用機(jī)制
如前所述,公然元非人化信念使得個(gè)體的社會(huì)身份受到威脅,繼而出現(xiàn)“互換”敵意認(rèn)知意愿,通過把外群體成員非人化,產(chǎn)生對(duì)外群體成員的攻擊傾向(Kteily et al., 2016);遭受微妙非人化在影響攻擊傾向時(shí),內(nèi)群體成員的自尊水平越高,攻擊傾向越強(qiáng)(Zhang et al., 2017)。
4.1社會(huì)身份威脅與“互換”意愿對(duì)患者公然元非人化效應(yīng)的影響
在公然元非人化影響攻擊傾向時(shí),非人化起到了中介作用(Bruneau et al., 2020)。當(dāng)公然元非人化影響非人化時(shí),社會(huì)身份威脅、“互換”意愿起中介作用。Deska(2018)就曾發(fā)現(xiàn),持有對(duì)羅姆人公然元非人化信念的匈牙利人,通過把羅姆人非人化,造成對(duì)羅姆人的敵視。如此以來,非人化使得對(duì)外群體的傷害變得合情合理(Rai et al., 2017;Bruneau et al., 2018; Lindén et al., 2016))。當(dāng)然,公然元非人化信念的降低也會(huì)降低非人化和攻擊傾向(Orosz et al., 2018)。公然元非人化信念還引起了社會(huì)身份威脅(Kteily et al., 2016)。此時(shí),個(gè)體的防御機(jī)制立刻激活,不但對(duì)外群體的信任降低、合作減少(Kahn et al.,2017),甚至可能報(bào)復(fù)、貶損外群體(Jetten et al., 2013)。個(gè)體所持的公然元非人化信念產(chǎn)生了社會(huì)身份受到威脅的感覺,又導(dǎo)致“互換”意愿(Kteily et al., 2016)。群體之間存在“互換”規(guī)范,具有相互性。當(dāng)個(gè)體獲得對(duì)方的積極反應(yīng),意味著“回報(bào)”也是積極的;當(dāng)所獲得的反應(yīng)是消極的,“回報(bào)”也會(huì)變得消極(Doosje & Haslam, 2005)。一旦認(rèn)為外群體持有對(duì)自己負(fù)面的刻板印象,個(gè)體就會(huì)對(duì)外群體進(jìn)行負(fù)面評(píng)價(jià)(Vorauer & Kumhyr, 2001; Owuamalam et al., 2013)。遭到外群體的貶低還會(huì)使得人們對(duì)外群體進(jìn)行強(qiáng)烈的報(bào)復(fù)(Park & Antonioni, 2007; Eisenberger et al., 2004)。綜上所述,人們的公然元非人化信念越深,社會(huì)身份威脅的感覺越強(qiáng),“互換”敵意的意愿程度越高,對(duì)外群體的非人化程度越大,對(duì)該群體的攻擊性越強(qiáng)。
在醫(yī)療過程中,患者是醫(yī)患關(guān)系的主體,理應(yīng)得到人格和身份上的尊重,但卻常常遭受醫(yī)方的公然非人化對(duì)待。持有公然元非人化信念的患者覺得自己被比作無差別的物體或不值得尊重的生物,因而其身份受到了極大的威脅。為了抵御這種威脅帶來的不適感,患者采取防御措施,從而形成了“互換”意愿。由于醫(yī)方將患者非人化,患者便會(huì)通過使用與醫(yī)方相同的策略(Kettunen et al., 2002),產(chǎn)生“互換”非人化的意愿,把醫(yī)方比作“空殼子”(Schroeder & Fishbach, 2015)等,淡化醫(yī)方的人性,甚至產(chǎn)生對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。因此,患者所持的對(duì)醫(yī)方公然元非人化的信念通過影響患者的社會(huì)身份威脅、“互換”的意愿并把醫(yī)方非人化,造成對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。
4.2自尊對(duì)患者微妙元非人化效應(yīng)的影響
微妙元非人化影響攻擊傾向時(shí),個(gè)體的自尊水平能夠起調(diào)節(jié)作用。具體表現(xiàn)為:自尊高的個(gè)體比自尊低的個(gè)體攻擊傾向更強(qiáng)(Zhang et al., 2017)。由于高自尊個(gè)體把所持的微妙元非人化信念視為他人對(duì)自己形象的威脅,從而引起個(gè)體的敏感和不適,因此產(chǎn)生對(duì)非人化施害者強(qiáng)烈的攻擊傾向(Bushman et al., 2009)。另外,由于微妙元非人化信念容易使人們產(chǎn)生羞恥感和忽視感(Bastian & Haslam, 2011),高自尊個(gè)體更難以容忍這種感受,因此產(chǎn)生對(duì)施害者高度的攻擊傾向。而低自尊特質(zhì)的人面對(duì)這種感覺更有可能忍氣吞聲,不太會(huì)出現(xiàn)攻擊傾向(Zhang et al., 2017)。F8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB
患者所持的對(duì)醫(yī)方的微妙元非人化信念在影響攻擊傾向時(shí),自尊水平的差異也可能起調(diào)節(jié)作用。由于患者群體具有獨(dú)特性,其自身的自尊水平也存在差異,高自尊水平患者的微妙元非人化信念威脅了其自身的自尊(Bushman et al., 2009),為了降低自尊受到的威脅感或降低被羞辱、被忽視的感覺,因而產(chǎn)生了對(duì)醫(yī)方的攻擊傾向。
5患者元非人化影響攻擊傾向的消解
5.1樹立醫(yī)務(wù)人員的人性化形象
提高患者對(duì)醫(yī)務(wù)人員人性化行為的認(rèn)知是降低患者公然元去人性化的重要手段,此舉能夠有效避免醫(yī)患間的暴力沖突(Androff, 2010)。第一,大眾媒體應(yīng)當(dāng)加強(qiáng)對(duì)醫(yī)務(wù)人員人性化的宣傳,給廣大患者樹立醫(yī)務(wù)工作者人性化的形象,指導(dǎo)患者換位思考,主動(dòng)體驗(yàn)醫(yī)患互動(dòng)中的人性化。第二,可利用服裝強(qiáng)調(diào)醫(yī)務(wù)人員的個(gè)性,在工作制服上加入個(gè)性化特征。醫(yī)務(wù)人員可以設(shè)計(jì)不同的顏色、圖案以區(qū)分不同科室,這些差異化的服裝可使他們成為獨(dú)特、鮮活的個(gè)體(Fontesse et al., 2019),降低患者對(duì)其的去人性化認(rèn)知(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。總之,在醫(yī)療情景中有必要重視樹立醫(yī)務(wù)人員的人性化形象。
5.2提高患者的人性化體驗(yàn)
增強(qiáng)患者自身的人性化體驗(yàn),可以有效降低患者的微妙元去人性化(Kteily et al., 2016)。第一,醫(yī)院盡可能設(shè)置人性化的就醫(yī)環(huán)境。比如,院方允許患者最大程度地對(duì)生活空間進(jìn)行個(gè)性化布置(Fontesse et al., 2019)。第二,醫(yī)院讓患者感受到自身的個(gè)性化信息受到重視,更多地把患者當(dāng)作獨(dú)立的鮮明個(gè)體,避免以社保號(hào)碼、病歷號(hào)碼或病床號(hào)確定患者的身份(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。第三,醫(yī)院定期對(duì)醫(yī)務(wù)人員進(jìn)行人文課程培訓(xùn),使他們學(xué)習(xí)如何更重視患者的人格,增強(qiáng)對(duì)患者能動(dòng)性的認(rèn)知(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。第四,換位思考,以最大可能給予增強(qiáng)患者人性化體驗(yàn)。譬如手術(shù)過程中醫(yī)務(wù)人員可采取不完全掩蔽措施, 使患者的手和臉保持明顯, 如使用透明窗簾、 保持患者的可視化等,從而提高人性化水平(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。
5.3加強(qiáng)醫(yī)務(wù)人員和患者的積極人性化接觸
一方面,已有研究表明,不同群體間的接觸有可能改善群體間的關(guān)系,尤其以積極接觸的效果最為明顯(Barlow et al., 2012;Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011)。而且通常認(rèn)為積極的接觸會(huì)有效減少公然的非人性化,個(gè)體如果與其先前從未接觸過的外群體成員產(chǎn)生積極互動(dòng),那么他們就有可能會(huì)看到外群體更為積極的一面(Esses et al., 2013)。此外,還有研究表明積極的群體間接觸可以有效減輕群體間的威脅(Schmid et al., 2014)。另一方面,元人性化往往會(huì)夸大個(gè)體所感受到的負(fù)面體驗(yàn)(Frey & Tropp, 2006)。因此,倘若醫(yī)務(wù)人員和患者能夠彼此積極接觸,聽取互相的觀點(diǎn),就有可能糾正過于悲觀的元認(rèn)知,從而有效減少醫(yī)患之間的敵意(Kteily et al., 2016)。
總之,兩類群體的接觸質(zhì)量是非人性化與元非人性化的一個(gè)重要影響因素(Bruneau et al., 2020)。在醫(yī)療實(shí)踐中,我們需要加強(qiáng)患者與醫(yī)務(wù)人員的積極溝通,使其互相了解各自人性化的一面,此舉有助于減少醫(yī)務(wù)人員因去人性化而物化患者,也有助于患者從痛苦的元人性化體驗(yàn)中走出,減弱攻擊傾向,積極地配合并參與醫(yī)療過程。
此外,在醫(yī)院條件許可或者政策支持的情況下,還應(yīng)該積極開展心理調(diào)適,緩解患者遭受非人性化的消極情緒狀況。例如,當(dāng)患者遭受去人性化時(shí),往往會(huì)引發(fā)明顯的情緒困擾(Ludwigson, et al., 2020)。情緒困擾是一種多因素的不愉快的情緒體驗(yàn),會(huì)嚴(yán)重?fù)p害患者的就醫(yī)體驗(yàn)和心理健康(Riab,et al., 2019)。此時(shí), 通過引導(dǎo)患者積極進(jìn)行認(rèn)知重評(píng), 可以有效緩解情緒困擾 (Guimond et al., 2019)。同時(shí)還應(yīng)將心理干預(yù)的重點(diǎn)放在核心自我評(píng)價(jià)較低的患者當(dāng)中,引導(dǎo)他們采用積極的認(rèn)知加工策略,從而降低情緒困擾。
綜上所述,只有理解醫(yī)患失諧發(fā)生的原因,才能夠更好地“對(duì)癥下藥”?;颊咚w驗(yàn)到的公然元去人性化、微妙元去人性化都將有可能導(dǎo)致其攻擊傾向。要切實(shí)避免此類事件的發(fā)生,既需要醫(yī)務(wù)工作者能夠表現(xiàn)出人性化關(guān)懷,樹立人性化的形象,又需要患者能夠換位思考,體會(huì)醫(yī)務(wù)工作者的艱辛,在就醫(yī)過程中提升自己的人性化體驗(yàn)感。同時(shí)還需要醫(yī)務(wù)人員和患者建立積極有效的互相接觸與溝通。
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The Effect of Meta-dehumanization on Aggressive Tendency in Medical Interaction:
PatientsPerspective
WANG Pei CHEN Yujie FAN Chunxia
(1 Faculty of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China)
(2 Department of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China)Abstract
Meta-dehumanization is one kind of perception that ones own group is perceived by another as less than fully human. In medical interaction, being dehumanized by doctors raises patientsmeta-dehumanization which includes subtle and blatant meta-dehumanization, patientsmeta-dehumanization causes the aggressive tendency against the doctors and even develops into aggressive behaviors. When being subtly dehumanized, patients with higher self-esteem tends to more aggressive than those with lower self-esteem; moreover, patientsblatant meta-dehumanization would provoke social identity threat, generating a desire to reciprocate that hostility toward the offending outgroup and resulting in out-group dehumanization and aggressive tendency against doctors. By building a humane image of medical staff, enhancing the patients humane experience, and strengthening positive humane contact between medical staff and patients, the influence of patientsmeta-dehumanizing beliefs on aggressive tendencies can be suppressed and potential doctor-patient conflicts reduced.
Key words:? doctor-patient interaction; meta-dehumanization; aggressive tendency; blatant meta-dehumanization; subtle meta-dehumanizationF8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB