跨越國際航運要道的橋梁：對擬建馬六甲海峽大橋的研究

馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽是世界最重要海上咽喉中的兩個,這兩條水路也被視為馬來西亞、印度尼西亞和新加坡這些沿岸國家的重要經(jīng)濟命脈。最近,建造一座橫跨馬六甲海峽,連接馬來西亞馬六甲和印度尼西亞杜邁的橋梁的提議引起了贊成和反對的各種反應(yīng)。本文討論了擬建的橫跨馬六甲海峽大橋帶來的潛在影響,結(jié)論顯示無論該橋的建造是否會為該區(qū)域和全球的經(jīng)濟帶來整體上的積極影響,馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽都是海運要道,任何對國際航運交通流的干擾都將對全球經(jīng)濟不利。

國際法 馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽 海運

一、引 言

馬六甲海峽的入口位于蘇門答臘島最北端的烏戎巴卡和泰國普吉島的萊姆佛蘭之間,①Executive Summary,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspectiv e,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,xiii～xvi.通往安達(dá)曼海的水道非常寬闊,大約有200海里寬,②Amelia Emran,The Regulation of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,University of Wollongong Master of Maritime Studies Research Thesis,2007, p.9.將馬來西亞半島本土和印度尼西亞的蘇門答臘島分開,由于往南部逐漸縮小而形成了漏斗形的水路。從一拓淺灘開始馬六甲海峽在任意兩岸之間的寬度均小于50海里,海峽終端位于馬來西亞丹戎比艾和印度尼西亞卡里摩島之間,此段縮窄至僅8.4海里,與位于新加坡南海岸東柔佛州與印尼廖內(nèi)群島之間的新加坡海峽銜接。①H.M.Ibrahim,Hairil Anuar Husin and Daneswari Sivaguru,The Straits of Malacca:Setting the Scene,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,pp.32～33;J.Ashley Roach,Enhancing Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Journal of International Affairs,2005,at http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-140163623/enhancing-maritime-security-straits.html,1 May 2012.

新加坡海峽長約60.8海里,寬度不超過8.639海里,向更大的連接太平洋的中國南海開放。②Michael Leifer,International Straits of the World,Malacca/Singapore/Indonesia:Sijthoff &Noordhoff,1978,pp.58～60;M.I.Bird,W.C.Pang and K.Lambeck,The Age and Origin of the Straits of Singapore,Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, Vol.241,2006,p.531;I.M.Andi Arsana and Farid Yuniar Sumaryo,Geospatial Aspects of Maritime Boundary Delimitations in the Singapore Strait involving Indonesia,Malaysia and Singapore,paper presented at the FIG Congress 2010:Facing the Challenges-Building the Capacity,Sydney,2010,p.8.盡管馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽曾被認(rèn)為是一體的,但現(xiàn)在國際海道測量組織從水道學(xué)的角度將其看作是兩個獨立的海峽。③Limits of Oceans and Seas,150-XII-1971,International Hydrographic Organization,1953, p.23.

馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽位于巽他大陸板塊珊瑚大三角內(nèi),兩者都被視為重要的漁場,擁有敏感的海洋環(huán)境。④H.Rezai,F.M.Yusoff,A.Kawamura,A.Arshad and B.H.R.Othman,Zooplankton biomass in the Straits of Malacca,Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,Vol.31,No.3,2003, pp.222～225;Siti Nazatul Izura bt Mohd Ishak and Tan Kim Hooi,Fisheries in the Straits of Malacca,in H.M Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profileof the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,p.88.沿岸許多美麗的島嶼、沙灘和獨有的沿岸環(huán)境、海洋環(huán)境,如紅樹林、泥灘和泥炭沼澤,通過蓬勃發(fā)展的生態(tài)旅游產(chǎn)業(yè)為馬來西亞、印尼和新加坡帶來了很大的經(jīng)濟收益。⑤Chua Thia-Eng,S.Adrian Ross and Huming Yu,Malacca Straits Environmental Profile,GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in East Asian Seas,1997,pp.85～92.

從國際航運界的視角看,馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽是促進全球貿(mào)易的戰(zhàn)略性海上交通線,①Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,The Application of Compulsory Pilotage in Straits Used for International Navigation:A Study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Asian Politics &Policy,Vol.3,No.4,2011,pp.501～526.為連接中東石油供應(yīng)和東亞經(jīng)濟體,即中國、日本、韓國提供了最短路線。②中東或海灣的石油出口大約三分之二是亞洲國家,即日本、中國、韓國。See Michael Richardson,The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline between the Persian Gulf and A-sia,in Andrew Forbes ed.,Asian Energy Security:Regional Cooperation in the Malacca Strait,Australia:Sea Power Centre,2008,pp.118～119.1987年全年過境通行量達(dá)30377艘,③Abdul Rani Abdullah,Norhayati Mohd Tahir,Tong Soo Loong,Tafazzal Mohd Hoque and Abdul Halim Sulaiman,The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demostration Project: Sources of Pollution,Marine Pollution Bulletin,Vol.39,1999,p.232.這一數(shù)字逐年增加并在2010年達(dá)到近74000艘船舶的運輸量。

表1 馬六甲海峽2000—2010年航運量(并預(yù)測2020年)

據(jù)稱1998年平均每天有600艘船從馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽通航。④Raja Malik Kamaruzaman,Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca,Singapore Journal of International&Comparative Laws,Vol.2,No.2,1998,pp.468～469.據(jù)2000年統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)顯示,平均每天有399艘船通過馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽,這可以理解為每3.6分鐘通過一艘。⑤Shigeki Sakamoto,“Non-State Actors”Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore-Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43,paper presented at the International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Kuala Lumpur,2008,p.2.2004年,有報道稱每天有超過900艘船從新加坡海峽通行,這意味著每1.6分鐘有一艘船經(jīng)過新加坡海峽。⑥Government of Singapore,Case Concerning Sovereignty Over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,Middle Rocks and South Ledge(Malaysia/Singapore):Memorial of Singapore, 2004,at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/130/14133.pdf,pp.10～11,1 May 2012.英國廣播公司新聞報道稱2010年一年內(nèi),馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽航行量是蘇伊士運河航行量的近6倍。①BBC News,Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait,at http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm,1 May 2012.統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)顯示,世界上最繁忙的港口大多位于東亞國家,包括中國和韓國,其中新加坡排名第二,如下列表2所示:

表2 2008年世界最繁忙港口

在航運交通方面,馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽僅次于鄰接英國、法國和比利時的歐洲關(guān)鍵制扼點多佛海峽,①Euan Graham,Japan’s Sea Lane Security,1940—2004:A matter of life and death,Oxford:Routledge,2006,pp.26～27.估計每天有1100萬桶石油通過馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽。②Energy and Maritime Security,paper presented at the“The 3rd IISS Regional Security Summit:The Manama Dialogue,Manama,Bahrain”,2006,p.46.油輪和貨輪運送大量的石油、煤炭、鐵礦石和礦產(chǎn)到東南亞、東北亞的經(jīng)濟中心,而在相反方向的航線上,數(shù)以百萬計的集裝箱流入全球各地的消費市場。③Joshua H.Ho,Enhancing Safety,Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore:The Co-operative Mechanism,Ocean Development and International Law,Vol.40,No.2,2009,pp.233～234.

二、擬建的馬六甲海峽大橋

最近,馬六甲海峽伙伴私人有限公司提出一項建造一座連接印尼蘇門答臘廖內(nèi)省港口城市杜邁和馬來西亞馬六甲市大橋的計劃,④The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.該項目的基礎(chǔ)工程已于2006年開始,研究表明,該橋梁工程在技術(shù)上是可行的。⑤The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.如果該項目貫徹實施,大橋建設(shè)估計將耗資125億美元,中國進出口銀行已同意出資橋梁工程總成本的85%。⑥The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.

這座長達(dá)127.92公里的擬建大橋被認(rèn)為能夠給兩國帶來新的經(jīng)濟機會,特別是對貿(mào)易和旅游業(yè)的刺激。⑦Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.馬來西亞將承擔(dān)48.68公里的橋梁建設(shè),而剩下的79.24公里則由印度尼西亞完成。⑧Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.圖2標(biāo)明了橫跨馬六甲海峽的大橋長度。

然而,印尼政府已經(jīng)宣布他們將優(yōu)先考慮建造巽他海峽大橋,而非馬六甲海峽大橋。①Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.印尼政府打算先通過巽他海峽大橋項目使爪哇和蘇門答臘連成一體,成為一個經(jīng)濟發(fā)展中心。②Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.

三、厄勒大橋

擬建中的馬六甲海峽大橋(長127.92公里)可能類似于連接丹麥?zhǔn)锥几绫竟腿鸬漶R爾默的厄勒大橋,③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.1～3.該大橋長16公里,包括橋梁和隧道,橫跨厄勒海峽,行車鐵路兩用,連接了兩個國家,于2000年6月正式向公眾開放。④Tage Skj?tt Larsen,Ulf Paulsson and Sten Wandel,Logistic in the?resund Region After the Bridge,European Journal of Operational Research,Vol.144,2003,pp.247～248.當(dāng)提出橫跨厄勒海峽建設(shè)厄勒大橋時,該計劃受到了航運界的批評,認(rèn)為其將妨礙厄勒海峽的航運流量。因此,德國向國際海事組織提交了一份暫停大橋建設(shè)的議案。⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

作為妥協(xié),瑞典建議大橋應(yīng)該有兩種特征的設(shè)計:一半是橋梁,一半是隧道。⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.這種妥協(xié)的主張使得更大的船只可以通行厄勒海峽,也將導(dǎo)致大橋的建設(shè)支出比原計劃中的預(yù)算成本增加三倍。⑦Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.目前,厄勒大橋每年通行六百萬輛車,鐵路運送八百萬人次橫跨厄勒海峽。①Terri Mapes,The Oresund Bridge:The Connection of Denmark&Sweden,at http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/denmar1/qt/oresundbridge.htm,1 May 2012.除了厄勒大橋,擬建的馬六甲海峽大橋也類似于擬建的長18公里的費馬恩大橋,該橋?qū)⑦B接德國和丹麥,并減少哥本哈根和漢堡之間的行車時間。②Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.這項工程預(yù)計在2018年竣工,但已經(jīng)遭到來自環(huán)境保護主義者和德國地方當(dāng)局的反對,稱其并不必要。③Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.

四、擬建的大橋及其潛在意義

鑒于馬六甲海峽本身的繁忙交通,擬建的大橋計劃很可能經(jīng)歷與厄勒大橋類似的抨擊,一旦馬六甲海峽大橋計劃實施,任何對計劃的修改提議都可能大幅增加橋梁的造價。④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

據(jù)預(yù)計,如此龐大工程,不僅會對大橋兩岸沿海生態(tài)系統(tǒng)造成不利影響,也將從水文、環(huán)境和經(jīng)濟角度對海峽整體造成影響。⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.洋流的運動和速度將因支撐橋梁的橋墩而發(fā)生變化,并可能改變海峽的性質(zhì)。⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.例如,架設(shè)橋墩區(qū)域的海底生態(tài)系統(tǒng)將因打樁工程和建筑材料的安置遭到不良影響。⑦Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.從環(huán)境角度來看,因馬方橋梁施工現(xiàn)場靠近巴東甘文丁這一玳瑁龜?shù)闹匾矃^(qū),該項目將侵犯該海洋物種的筑巢地。①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.而且大橋建設(shè)本身將改變海峽的海底生態(tài)系統(tǒng),這可能為該區(qū)域的漁業(yè)活動和海洋、沿海旅游業(yè)帶來潛在的負(fù)面影響。②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.

大橋的建設(shè)將會導(dǎo)致馬六甲海峽大部分的分道通航制區(qū)域關(guān)閉,這將造成潛在的船舶航行危險,從而限制水路交通流。③Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.大橋的建設(shè)以及完工以后大橋的很多混凝土支柱,不僅會降低船只通過海峽的航行速度,也為大型集裝箱船和油輪通過此區(qū)域帶來困難。④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.航運交通變慢將導(dǎo)致海峽擁堵,最終可能導(dǎo)致海上事故。⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.這些事故導(dǎo)致的石油、化學(xué)和有毒物質(zhì)泄漏可能危及馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽敏感的海洋環(huán)境。這也意味著,通過海路運輸?shù)漠a(chǎn)品將需要更長的時間和更高的運輸成本,世界范圍內(nèi)的市場售價也將提高。⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.大橋的建設(shè)也可以看作是與1982年《聯(lián)合國海洋法公約》第三部分有關(guān)所有船只在用于國際航行海峽時享有不受阻礙的過境通行權(quán)的規(guī)定相違背。⑦馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽兩端均連接公海/專屬經(jīng)濟區(qū)的一部分,因此,適用《聯(lián)合國海洋法公約》第三部分,特別是第37條和第38條第1款的過境通行,《聯(lián)合國海洋法公約》第44條禁止海峽沿岸國阻礙或妨礙航行于海峽的船舶行使過境通行權(quán)。

工程竣工后,大橋?qū)⑦B接馬來半島和印度尼西亞蘇門答臘島。馬來半島位于環(huán)太平洋火山帶以外的穩(wěn)定大陸板塊,⑧臨近太平洋的大陸和島弧邊緣的由活躍火山帶主導(dǎo)的環(huán)太平洋火山帶,導(dǎo)致大陸邊緣內(nèi)和周圍地區(qū)不穩(wěn)定、地震活動頻繁。這些區(qū)域包括智利和秘魯安第斯山脈、中美洲、美國西部和加拿大、南阿拉斯加、阿留申群島、勘察加半島、千葉群島、日本、馬里亞納群島、湯加、斐濟、新西蘭、菲律賓和印度尼西亞。See W.G.Ernst,The Increasing Severity of Circumpacific Natural Disasters,International Geology Review,Vol.43,2001,pp.380～381.而蘇門答臘島則位于主要地震活動區(qū)的環(huán)太平洋火山帶上,受到地震和海嘯的威脅。⑨The Pacific‘Ring of Fire’,2009,at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8284372.stm,1 May 2012.2004年被海嘯摧毀的亞齊省充分表明該區(qū)易受這些自然災(zāi)害侵襲,①Roland Cochard,Senaratne L Ranamukhaarachchi and Ganesh P.Shivakoti,The 2004 Tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand:A Review on Coastal Ecosystems,Wave Hazards and Vulnerability,Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,Vol.10, 2008,pp.4～5;Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt. Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.如果再次發(fā)生地震或海嘯,大橋遭到直接沖擊,可能造成嚴(yán)重?fù)p壞,②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.馬來西亞和印度尼西亞的經(jīng)濟也將因為橋梁全部或部分破壞受到不利影響。③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.海峽內(nèi)的船舶運輸將會因為橋梁碎片散落海上而受阻,類似漁業(yè)和旅游業(yè)的經(jīng)濟活動將受到重創(chuàng)。④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.3～4.然而,該項目的支持者,馬六甲海峽伙伴私人有限公司聲稱橋址位于無任何斷層的歐亞板塊,⑤Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.盡管距項目現(xiàn)場約100公里是危險的地震帶,在過去一萬年卻沒有活躍、頻繁的地震活動記錄。⑥Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.

另一個問題是大橋是否真能促進兩國的經(jīng)濟利益,隨后對大橋的使用能否收回建橋成本?建橋的成本將導(dǎo)致馬來西亞和印度尼西亞債臺高筑,這將轉(zhuǎn)嫁給橋梁使用者高額的過橋費。⑦Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.對比厄勒大橋所處的斯堪的納維亞地區(qū),馬來西亞和印度尼西亞都是發(fā)展中國家,沒有斯堪的納維亞半島相對較高的生活水平,如果征收的過橋費太高,大部分市民可能避免使用大橋,并恢復(fù)輪渡或乘船的方式來橫渡馬六甲海峽。⑧Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.

在旅游業(yè)方面,大橋可能會吸引更多的游客來馬來西亞和印度尼西亞,但這并不能得到保證。由于兩國都處于熱帶氣候環(huán)境,雷雨在夜晚是很自然的現(xiàn)象,在這種天氣里開車通過海峽是很危險的。如果橋上沒有很多車輛行駛,駕駛員很可能遭遇劫持和其他犯罪活動,如公路搶劫和劫車。①Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.橋梁的實質(zhì)長度可能達(dá)127.92公里,這將使當(dāng)局難以保障司機的安全。②Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.

位于馬來西亞這邊的馬六甲是大橋的一個戰(zhàn)略要地,因為馬六甲市和馬來西亞其他主要城市,包括吉隆坡、布城、柔佛以及鄰近的新加坡距離都不太遠(yuǎn),③T Bunnell,PA Barter and S Morshidi,City Profile:Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area:A Globalising City-Region,Cities,Vol.19,2002,pp.364～365.這些城市都有良好的高速公路連接馬六甲市。④馬來西亞半島西海岸有馬來西亞最長的高速公路,即綿延850公里,從北部泰國邊界到南部新山市的南北高速公路項目。這條高速公路開通于1994年,將馬六甲市與馬來西亞其他主要城市,如吉隆坡、布城、莎阿南、怡保、喬治城(檳城)、新山市以及鄰近的新加坡很好的連接起來。See Thomas Williamson,Malaysia’s National Expressway,Space& Culture,Vol.6,No.2,2003,pp.110～131.而在印尼這邊的杜邁則不是同樣具有戰(zhàn)略性的要地,因為它是一個人口相對較少的城市,在2008年時約有21789人,并不是印尼的主要城市,且距離印尼其他主要城市較遠(yuǎn),如雅加達(dá)、萬隆、泗水、棉蘭、巴鄰旁和巴東,⑤Sivapalan Selvadurai,Obstacles in Cross-Border Trade:Case of Dumai,Riau,Maritime Institute of Malaysia Bulletin,Vol.17,No.1,2010,p.20.而且,杜邁沒有與這些城市連接的良好高速公路網(wǎng)絡(luò)。⑥在印尼的道路使用者面臨城市道路交通高峰延誤、城市以外或鄉(xiāng)村路況不好導(dǎo)致旅途時間漫長的問題。2009年全球競爭力指數(shù)中,印尼的道路基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施可用性在134個國家中排第94位,印尼的高速公路集中在爪哇的主要城市,偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)的道路條件往往是最惡劣的。See Prakarsa:Road Development,Journal of the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, Vol.5,2011,pp.3～7;Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.380～381.擬建的大橋計劃如果是連接馬六甲市和印尼其他重要城市,特別是雅加達(dá),才會是切實可行的。隨著許多廉價航空公司的出現(xiàn),如該地區(qū)的亞洲航空、三佛齊航空和獅航都提供負(fù)擔(dān)得起的航班服務(wù),空運可能成為運輸?shù)氖走x。⑦Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.378～382.印尼首都雅加達(dá)距離杜邁約1063公里。

因此,在印尼雅加達(dá)或爪哇其他地方的居民如果要去馬來西亞,更實際的方式是直飛吉隆坡,而不是開很長時間的車到杜邁再過橋。對打算去蘇門答臘島或爪哇的馬來西亞居民來說,飛行將因其廉價的運輸模式,且節(jié)約時間而超過橋梁成為首選。

五、結(jié) 論

馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽是航運和許多其他經(jīng)濟產(chǎn)業(yè)活動的重要水路。在航運方面,其是最繁忙的海峽之一,僅次于連接大西洋和北海的歐洲重要制扼點多佛海峽。隨著中國作為亞洲領(lǐng)先經(jīng)濟強國的崛起,馬六甲海峽和新加坡海峽作為關(guān)鍵海上交通線的重要性絕不能低估,這已被海峽中船舶通行量每年都在增加這一事實所證明。近期提出的橫跨馬六甲海峽建設(shè)大橋的計劃引起了正面和負(fù)面的不一反應(yīng)。

需要指出的是擬建的大橋可能會刺激馬六甲海峽地區(qū)及周圍地區(qū)經(jīng)濟發(fā)展,然而,正如本文所討論的,擬建的大橋也存在明顯的缺點。大橋的建設(shè)可能不僅會對馬六甲海峽海洋環(huán)境,也會對國際航運交通流和沿岸國家的經(jīng)濟造成不利影響。考慮到這些因素,建設(shè)一座連接馬六甲和杜邁的橋可能無法推進馬來西亞和印度尼西亞兩國之間的經(jīng)濟增長,同時,建造這座大橋可能會為通過馬六甲海峽的國際航運帶來潛在危險,因其增加了航海事故和海洋污染發(fā)生的可能性。

(中譯:鄧云成 所在單位:上海交通大學(xué))

Ⅰ.Introduction

The entrance to the Strait of Malacca is located between Ujung Baka at the northernmost tip of Sumatra and Lem Voalan in Phuket Island in Thailand.①Executive Summary,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspectiv e,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,xiii～xvi.The Strait is very wide at its gateway to the Andaman Sea,which is about 200nautical miles in breadth.①Amelia Emran,The Regulation of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,University of Wollongong Master of Maritime Studies Research Thesis,2007, p.9.It separates mainland Malay Peninsular from the Indonesian island of Sumatra,forming a funnel-shaped waterway as it narrows to the south.From One Fathom Bank(Permatang Sedepa)the breadth of the Strait of Malacca on either shore is less than 50 nautical miles and it narrows to only 8.4 nautical miles where it ends in areas between Malaysia’s Tanjung Piai and Indonesia’s Pulau Karimun Kecil and subsequently joins the Strait of Singapore,which is located between Singapore,south coast of Eastern Johor and the Riau Islands in Indonesia.②H.M.Ibrahim,Hairil Anuar Husin and Daneswari Sivaguru,The Straits of Malacca:Setting the Scene,in H.M.Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,pp.32～33;J.Ashley Roach,Enhancing Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Journal of International Affairs,2005,at http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-140163623/enhancing-maritime-security-straits.html,1 May 2012.

The Strait of Singapore is approximately 60.8 nautical miles in length having width not more than 8.639 nautical miles and it opens up to the larger South China Sea that acts as a connector to the Pacific Ocean.③Michael Leifer,International Straits of the World,Malacca/Singapore/Indonesia:Sijthoff &Noordhoff,1978,pp.58～60;M.I.Bird,W.C.Pang and K.Lambeck,The Age and Origin of the Straits of Singapore,Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, Vol.241,2006,p.531;I.M.Andi Arsana and Farid Yuniar Sumaryo,Geospatial Aspects of Maritime Boundary Delimitations in the Singapore Strait involving Indonesia,Malaysia and Singapore,paper presented at the FIG Congress 2010:Facing the Challenges-Building the Capacity,Sydney,2010,p.8.The International Hydrographic Organization(IHO)regards the Strait of Malacca and the Strait of Singapore,hydrographically,as separate straits,④Limits of Oceans and Seas,150-XII-1971,International Hydrographic Organization, 1953,p.23.despite the fact that they have been regarded as one strait.

Located within the coral triangle on the Sunda Continental Plate,both the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are regarded as important fishing grounds, possessing sensitive marine environment.⑤H.Rezai,F.M.Yusoff,A.Kawamura,A.Arshad and B.H.R.Othman,Zooplankton biomass in the Straits of Malacca,Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,Vol.31,No.3, 2003,pp.222～225;Siti Nazatul Izura bt Mohd Ishak and Tan Kim Hooi,Fisheries in the Straits of Malacca,in H.M Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin ed.,Profile of the Straits of Malacca:Malaysia’s Perspective,Malaysia:Maritime Institute of Malaysia,2008,p.88.The many beautiful islands,beaches and unique coastal and marine environment such as mangrove forests,mudflats and peat swamps dotting along the Straits have generated economic returns through the thriving eco-tourism industries taking place in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.①Chua Thia-Eng,S.Adrian Ross and Huming Yu,Malacca Straits Environmental Profile, GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in East Asian Seas,1997,pp.85～92.

In the eyes of the international shipping community,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are seen as strategic sea lines of communication that facilitate global trade.②Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,The Application of Compulsory Pilotage in Straits Used for International Navigation:A Study of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Asian Politics &Policy,Vol.3,No.4,2011,pp.501～526.These straits form the shortest route connecting the Middle-Eastern oil suppliers with the economies of East Asia namely China,Japan and South Korea.③About two thirds of Middle-Eastern or Gulf oil exports go to Asian countries namely Japan,China and South Korea.See Michael Richardson,The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline between the Persian Gulf and Asia,in Andrew Forbes ed.,Asian Energy Security:Regional Cooperation in the Malacca Strait,Australia:Sea Power Centre,2008,pp. 118～119.In 1987,the number of transiting traffic stood at 30,377 per annum,④Abdul Rani Abdullah,Norhayati Mohd Tahir,Tong Soo Loong,Tafazzal Mohd Hoque and Abdul Halim Sulaiman,The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demonstration Project: Sources of Pollution,Marine Pollution Bulletin,Vol.39,1999,p.232.and it increased gradually up to approximately 74,000 vessel movements in 2010.

Tab.1 Shipping Traffic in the Strait of Malacca 2000—2010(with the year 2020 projection)

In 1998,it was said that an average of 600 vessels sailed the Straits of Malacca and Singapore every day.⑤Raja Malik Kamaruzaman,Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca,Singapore Journal of International&Comparative Laws,Vol.2,No.2,1998,pp.468～469.According to statistics for 2000,a daily average of 399 vessels passed through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore whichtranslated to one every 3.6 minutes.①Shigeki Sakamoto,“Non-State Actors”Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of Malacca and Singapore-Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43,Paper presented at the International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore,Kuala Lumpur,2008,p.2.In 2004,it was reported that more than 900 ships sailed the Strait of Singapore every day,which meant that one ship would pass the Strait of Singapore in every 1.6 minutes.②Government of Singapore,Case Concerning Sovereignty Over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,Middle Rocks and South Ledge(Malaysia/Singapore):Memorial of Singapore, 2004,at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/130/14133.pdf,pp.10～11,1 May 2012.The British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC)News reported in 2010 that yearly,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore accommodated almost six times the volume of navigational traffic that went through the Suez Canal.③BBC News,Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait,at http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm,1 May 2012.Statistical data have shown that most of the world’s busiest ports are located in East Asian countries including China and South Korea,with Singapore ranked as the second busiest,as shown in the following Table 2:

Tab.2 World’s Busiest Ports 2008 Note:Ports in bold are those located along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

(Continued from the previous page)

In terms of navigational traffic,the Straits of Malacca and Singapore came second only to the Dover Strait,a crucial European chokepoint bordered by the United Kingdom,France and Belgium.①Euan Graham,Japan’s Sea Lane Security,1940-2004:A matter of life and death,Oxford:Routledge,2006,pp.26～27.An estimated 11 million barrels of oil pass the Straits of Malacca and Singapore daily.②Energy and Maritime Security,Paper presented at the“The 3rd IISS Regional Security Summit:The Manama Dialogue,Manama,Bahrain”,2006,p.46.Tankers and bulk carriers ferry vast quantities of oil,coal,iron ore and minerals to the economic centres of Southeast and Northeast Asia while on the other direction,millions of containers flow to feed consumer markets from all over the globe.③Joshua H.Ho,Enhancing Safety,Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore:The Co-operative Mechanism,Ocean Development and International Law,Vol.40,No.2,2009,pp.233～234.

Ⅱ.The Proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge

Recently,a plan has been proposed by the Straits of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.(SOMP)to build a bridge to link the Indonesian port-city of Dumai in the Sumatran province of Riau with the Malaysian city of Malacca.④The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.The groundwork for the project started in 2006 and studies show that the bridgeproject is technically feasible.①The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.Should the project be carried out,the bridge would cost US$12.5 billion.The Import-Export Bank of China has agreed to finance 85%of the total cost of the bridge project.②The Star Online,CM:Bridge Over Strait Good for Trade and Tourism,2009,at http:// thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2009/8/19/nation/4548353&sec=nation,1 May 2012.

This proposed 127.92 km long bridge is said to be capable of fostering new economic opportunities between the two countries particularly in stimulating trade and the tourism industry.③Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Malaysia will undertake to build 48.68 km of the bridge while Indonesia will construct the remaining 79.24 km.④Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Introduction,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Fig.2 illustrates the length of the bridge spanning across the breadth of the Strait of Malacca.

However,the Indonesian government has announced that they would give priority to the construction of the Strait of Sunda Bridge over the Strait of Malacca Bridge.⑤Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.The Indonesian government intends to first integrate Java-Sumatra as a center of economic development with the Sunda Strait Bridge project.⑥Jimmy Hitipeuw,Indonesia to Prioritize Sunda Strait Bridge,2011,at http://english. kompas.com/read/2010/12/21/14305586/Indonesia.to.Prioritize.Sunda.Strait.Bridge-5,1 May 2012.

Ⅲ.Oresund Bridge

The proposed 127.92 km Strait of Malacca Bridge is likely to resemble the Oresund Bridge that connects the Danish capital of Copenhagen in Denmark and Malmo in Sweden.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.1～3.The 16 km combined bridge and tunnel stands over the Oresund Sound and connects both nations by road and rail,and it was officially opened to public in June 2000.②Tage Skj?tt Larsen,Ulf Paulsson and Sten Wandel,Logistic in the?resund Region After the Bridge,European Journal of Operational Research,Vol.144,2003,pp.247～248.When the construction of the bridge over the Oresund Sound was proposed,it received adverse criticism from the shipping community as it was thought that it would hamper shipping flow in the Oresund Sound.As a result,Germany submitted a proposal to the International Maritime Organization(IMO)to suspend the construction of the bridge.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

As a compromise,Sweden suggested that the bridge should be designed in two features:half a bridge and half a tunnel.④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.This compromise was advocated to allow bigger ships to navigate across the Oresund Sound.It resulted in the increase of the construction expenditure of the bridge to three times more than the cost that was budgeted for in the original plan.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.Currently the Oresund Bridge carries 6 million vehicles per year with the railway link transporting 8 million people annually across the Oresund Sound.⑥Terri Mapes,The Oresund Bridge:The Connection of Denmark&Sweden,at http://goscandinavia.about.com/od/denmar1/qt/oresundbridge.htm,1 May 2012.Besides the Oresund Bridge,the proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge will also resemble the proposed18 km Fehmarn Belt Bridge that will connect Germany and Denmark and cut journey time between Copenhagen and Hamburg.①Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.This project,which has received opposition from environmentalists and local authorities in German,calling it to be unnecessary,is expected to be completed in 2018.②Bloomberg Businessweek,Germany,Denmark to Build Mega Bridge:The 11-mile Span Across the Baltic Sea Will be One of Europe’s Largest Works Projects,2007,at http:// www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jul2007/gb2007072_815071.htm,1 May 2012.

Ⅳ.The Proposed Bridge and Its Potential Implications

Given the busy nature of the Strait of Malacca,it is likely that similar impacts to the Oresund Bridge experience,would occur if the Strait of Malacca Bridge plan were to be implemented and it is likely that any proposed modifications to the plan would also substantially increase the price of the construction of the bridge.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.2～3.

It is anticipated that such a huge project would not only adversely affect the coastal ecosystems on both shores of the bridge;it would also affect the Strait as a whole,from hydrological,environmental and economic perspectives.④Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.The movement and speed of currents would be changed by the existence of pillars holding up the bridge,and could potentially alter the nature of the Strait.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.For example,the seabed ecosystems of the areas where the bridge would be erected would suffer from adverse impacts as a result of piling worksand the placement of construction materials.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.From the environmental perspective,the project would encroach the nesting grounds of the hawksbill turtle (penyu karah)as the construction site of the bridge on the Malaysian side would be around Padang Kemunting,an important nesting area for this species of marine animal.②Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.Given the fact that the construction of the Bridge would itself alter the seabed ecosystems of the Strait,it has the potential to negatively impact the fisheries activities and the marine and coastal tourism industry in that area.③Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.

The construction would have the effect of closing down a large portion of the Traffic Separation Scheme(TSS)areas of the Strait of Malacca,which would result in potential navigational hazards for ships and thus,hamper traffic flow through the waterway.④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.The construction and presence of the bridge with its many concrete pillars would not only reduce the speed of vessels sailing through the Strait but would also cause difficulty for large container vessels and oil tankers navigating through this area.⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.Slower movement of shipping traffic would cause congestion in the Strait and this may eventually lead to maritime accidents.⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.Spills of oil,chemical and noxious substances from such accidents could jeopardise the sensitive marine environment of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.It would also mean that transits by shipping traffic would take a longer time and higher shipping costs would increase prices for products sold in markets worldwide.⑦Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,pp.12～16.The construction of the bridge may also be seen as contradicting Part III of the United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea 1982(LOSC)that promotes the unimpeded right of transit passage for all vessels through straits used for international navigation.①The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are straits that connect one part of the high seas/ Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ)to another part of the high seas/EEZ.Therefore transit passage is applicable in these Straits as provided for in Part III of the LOSC particularly in Articles 37 and 38(1).Article 44 of the LOSC prohibits States bordering straits to hamper or impede the right of transit passage exercised by vessels navigating the straits.

Upon completion,the bridge would connect the Malay Peninsula with the Indonesian island of Sumatra.The Malay Peninsula is located on a stable continent which is outside the Pacific Ring of Fire.②The Pacific Ring of Fire guards the margins of the continents and island arcs that border the Pacific Ocean which are mainly dominated by active volcanic belts,causing the areas situated within and around the continental margin to be instable and are subjected to frequent seismic activities.The areas include the Chilean and Peruvian Andes,Central America,the western United States(U.S.)and Canada,southern Alaska,the Aleutians,Kamchatka Peninsula,the Kuriles,Japan,the Marianas,Tonga-Fiji,New Zealand,the Philippines and Indonesia.See W.G.Ernst,The Increasing Severity of Circumpacific Natural Disasters,International Geology Review,Vol.43,2001,pp.380～381.Sumatra,however,is located within the Pacific Ring of Fire,an area with major seismic activities,and is exposed to the threat of earthquakes and tsunamis.③The Pacific‘Ring of Fire’,2009,at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8284372.stm,1 May 2012.The 2004 tsunami incident that ravaged Aceh manifestly demonstrated that the region is exposed to these kinds of natural calamities.④Roland Cochard,Senaratne L Ranamukhaarachchi and Ganesh P.Shivakoti,The 2004 Tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand:A Review on Coastal Ecosystems,Wave Hazards and Vulnerability,Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,Vol.10, 2008,pp.4～5;Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt. Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009,p.3.Should the bridge take a direct hit from another tremor or a tsunami,it is likely to be badly damaged.⑤Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.The economy of both Malaysia and Indonesia would suffer adversely should the bridge collapse entirely or in parts.⑥Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, p.3.Shipping transits in the Strait would be hampered with the debris of the shattered bridge dispersed through the Strait and economic activi-ties such as fisheries and tourism would be heavily impacted.①Ibrahim Hj Mohamed,Mohd Nizam Basiron,Nazery Khalid and Capt.Rakish Suppiah,A Bridge Too Far?An Analysis of the Proposed Bridge Across the Straits of Malacca From a Maritime Perspective,MIMA’s Online Commentary on Maritime Issues,Vol.2,2009, pp.3～4.However,the proponent of the project,the SOMP contended that the site of the bridge is located on a Eurasian plate outside any fault line.②Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.Though there is an unfavorable seismic zone approximately 100 km away from the project site,there has been no known record of active or frequent seismic activities in the last ten thousand years.③Strait of Malacca Partners Sdn.Bhd.,Geological Evaluation,2011,at http://straitofmalaccacrossing.com/,1 May 2012.

Another issue which arises is whether the bridge could really foster economic benefits for both countries.Would the level of cost involved in constructing the bridge be justified by subsequent usage?The cost of constructing the bridge would result in high debt liabilities for both Malaysia and Indonesia which would be passed on to bridge users in higher tolls.④Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.In contrast to the Oresund Bridge in the Scandinavian region,both Malaysia and Indonesia are developing States and do not enjoy the relatively high standards of living of Scandinavia.If the toll imposed on the bridge is too expensive,the public at large may refrain from using it and may revert to using ferries and boats to cross the Strait of Malacca.⑤Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.13.

In terms of tourism,the Bridge may attract more tourists into both countries but this cannot be guaranteed.With the tropical weather conditions which are common in both Malaysia and Indonesia,thunder storms are a natural phenomenon in the evening.Driving across the Strait would be dangerous in this type of weather.If there is not much vehicle traffic on the bridge,drivers may likely then be exposed to hijacking and other criminal activities like highway robberies and carjacking.⑥Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.The substantial length of the bridge which is likely to be up to 127.92 km would make it difficult for the authorities to maintainthe safety and security of drivers.①Nazery Khalid and Lasme Khorana,Revisiting the Proposed Bridge Over the Straits of Malacca,MIMA Bulletin,Vol.17,No.2,2010,p.14.

Malacca on the Malaysian side is a strategic site for the bridge as Malacca and other major cities in Malaysia including Kuala Lumpur,Putrajaya,Johor Bahru and neighbouring Singapore are not too far away from Malacca.②T Bunnell,PA Barter and S Morshid,City Profile:Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Area:A Globalising City-Region,Cities,Vol.19,2002,pp.364～365.These cities are served with good highway connections that link them to the city of Malacca.③The west coast States of Peninsula Malaysia are well-served with the longest expressway in Malaysia,namely the PLUS(Projek Lebuhraya Utara Selatan/North-South Highway Project)that stretches for 850km from the Thai border in the north to Johor Bahru in the south.With the opening of this expressway in 1994,Malacca,is well-connected with other major cities in Malaysia like Kuala Lumpur,Putrajaya,Shah Alam,Ipoh,Georgetown(Penang),Johor Bahru and also neighboring Singapore.See Thomas Williamson,Malaysia’s National Expressway,Space&Culture,Vol.6,No.2,2003,pp.110～131.However,Dumai is not a similarly strategic site on the Indonesian side as it only has a relatively small population of around 215,789 in 2008,is not a major city in Indonesia and is distant from other main Indonesian cities like Jakarta,Bandung,Surabaya,Medan,Palembang and Padang.④Sivapalan Selvadurai,Obstacles in Cross-Border Trade:Case of Dumai,Riau,Maritime Institute of Malaysia Bulletin,Vol.17,No.1,2010,p.20.Dumai is not served with a good network of expressways connecting it with these other cities.⑤Road users in Indonesia have faced the problems of mounting traffic delays on city roads and long journey times due to poor road conditions outside the cities or in rural areas.The Global Competitiveness Index in 2009 ranked Indonesia 94thout of 134 countries in the availability of road infrastructure.Expressways in Indonesia are mainly concentrated in main cities in Java and road conditions in remote areas are often in the worst condition. See Prakarsa:Road Development,Journal of the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative, Vol.5,2011,pp.3～7;Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.380～381.The proposed bridge plan would only be practically viable if it connects Malacca with another major city or cities in Indonesia,particularly Jakarta. With the emergence of many budget airlines like Air Asia,Sriwijaya Air and Lion Air in the region that provide affordable flight services,flying is likely to be the preferred method of transportation.⑥Justine Vaisutis,Indonesia,Australia:Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd,2007,pp.378～382.Jakarta,the capital city of Indonesia,is approximately 1063 km away from Dumai.

So,it would be more practical for Indonesians that reside in Jakarta or other parts of Java,wishing to come to Malaysia to fly directly to Kuala Lumpurinstead of driving a long way to Dumai to use the bridge.For Malaysians who intend to go to Sumatra or Java,flying would be the preferred option over using the bridge as it is a cheaper mode of transportation and not as time consuming.

Ⅴ.Conclusion

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are important waterways for shipping activities as well as many other economic industries.In terms of shipping,the Straits are among the busiest and come second only to the Dover Strait,an important European chokepoint linking the Atlantic Ocean to the North Sea.With the rise of China as Asia’s leading economic powerhouse,the importance of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore as crucial sea lines of communication could never be underestimated.This is justified by the increasing number of ships sailing these Straits each year.The recent proposed plan to build a bridge across the Strait of Malacca has sparked mixed reactions,both positive and negative.

It is to be noted that the proposed bridge may stimulate economic development in areas within and around the Strait of Malacca region.However,as discussed in this article,the construction of the proposed bridge may also have certain downsides.The construction of the proposed bridge would likely cause adverse impacts not only to the marine environment of the Strait of Malacca, but also to the flow of the international shipping traffic and the economic wellbeing of the littoral States.Taking these considerations into account,having a bridge connection between Malacca and Dumai is not likely to boost economic growth between the two nations of Malaysia and Indonesia.It could also be seen as a potential major navigational hazard for international shipping traffic transiting the Strait of Malacca by raising the likelihood of maritime accidents and marine pollution.

Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli*

Bridges across Critical International Shipping Ways:A Study of the Proposed Strait of Malacca Bridge

Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli*

The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are two of the most important maritime chokepoints in the world.These waterways are also regarded as important economic lifelines for the littoral States of Malaysia,Indonesia and Singapore.The recent proposal to build a bridge across the Strait of Malacca connecting the Malaysian State of Malacca to Dumai in Indonesia has sparked various reactions both positive and negative.This article discusses the potential implications should the construction of the proposed bridge take place across the Strait of Malacca.This article concludes by asserting whether or not the construction of the bridge would positively benefit the regional and the global economy as a whole,both the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are important shipping ways and any interference to the flow of international shipping traffic would be detrimental to the well-being of the global economy.

International Law;Straits of Malacca and Singapore;Shipping

*Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,所在單位:馬來西亞回教科學(xué)大學(xué)回教法&法律學(xué)院。電子郵箱:hazmirusli@usim.edu.my。

②American Association of Port Authority,World Port Ranking-2008,at http://aapa.files. cms-plus.com/Statistics/WORLD%20PORT%20RANKINGS%2020081.pdf,1 May 2012.

*Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli,Faculty of Syariah&Law,Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia.

E-mail:hazmirusli@usim.edu.my.

④American Association of Port Authority,World Port Ranking-2008,at http://aapa.files. cms-plus.com/Statistics/WORLD%20PORT%20RANKINGS%2020081.pdf,1 May 2012.