方源和

A word is a free form which doesnt consist entirely of lesser free forms. In briefly， a word is a minimum free form. You may be curious about how the words are formed. Lets study the rules how words are formed step by step .

1. Onomatopoeic words

The words which represent sounds or things that make a sound are called onomatopoeic words. i.e. The words “bang and crash” are clearly imitative of the sounds that they denote.

2. Borrowing

Borrowing is the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its history， the English language has adopted a vast number of loan–?words from other languages. For instance， alcohol（Arabic）、robot（Czech）、tycoon（Japanese）、Kung fu（Chinese）.

Latin：Battle，banner，wall，pit，street，pound，wine，trade，bargain，jar，kettle，dish，gem，cheese，pepper，plum，nutter，pipe，mule，Chester，Manchester.

Alter，candle，creed，disciple，mass，nun，shrine，shrive，alms，angel，anthem，amen，apostle，bishop，Christ，church，clerk，devil，martyr，minister，monk，pope，priest，psalm，cap，sock，purple，chest，mat，sack，millet，radish，doe，oyster，lobster，cook，box，pine，lily，mallow，school，master，circle，elephant，talent，giant.

Contempt，frustrate，distract，gesture，history，immune，include，incredible，index，individual，infancy，minor，moderate，necessary，nervous，ornate，picture，polite，popular，present，private，promote，quite，interrupt，legal，mechanical，rational，reject，script，secular，solar，solitary，submit，suppress，subscribe，summary，temperate，temporal，testify，tract，-able，-ible，-al，-ous，-ive.

Focus，radius，status，bouns，circus，apparatus，nucleus，genius，eateem，minimum，maximum，stratum，via，criteria，species，series，specimen，prostest，enterprise，reproach，alibi.

Greek：

Democracy，monarchy，politics，anarchy，logic，academy，philosophy，matephysics，astronomy，atom，arithmetic，geography，eclipse，mathmatics，planet，sphere，anatomy，arthritis，clinic，diet，pharmacy，alphabet，drama，epic，grammar，idiom，phrase，poem，poet，rhythm，athlete，gymnasium，stadium，anthology，architect，chaos，electric，erotic，ethnic，hero，idiot，method，music，mystery.

Anti-，hyper-， pacifist， speedometer， television.

French：

Barber，butcher，carpenter，fletcher，mason，taylor，govern，reign，state，crown，country，power，council，authority，parliament，people，nation，feudal，vassal，prince，peer，duke，count，baron，justice，just，judge，jury，court，suit，sue，defendant，plea，plead，fee，accuse，crime，felony，traitor，damage，dower，heritage，property，realestate，injury，privilege，bail，person，piety，religion，service，angel，sacrifice，cruel，miracle，pray，prayer，sermon，virtue，vicce，duty，consience，grace，desire，pity，discipline，mercy，war，peace，battle，arms，dart，ensign，siege，office，captain，colonel，lieutenant，soldier，troops，vessel，navy，challenge，enemy，danger，prison，march，force，company，guard，beef，veal，mutton，pork，baccon，brawn，sauce，biol，fry，roast，toast，pasty，soup，jelly，dainty，dinner，supper，feast，arch，tower，pillar，porch，column，choir，palace，castle，manor，mansion，fashion，dress，gown，dobe，garment，attire，cloak，coat，veil，lace，embroidery，fur.

Barber，butcher，carpenter，fletcher，mason，taylor，govern，reign，state，crown，country，power，council，authority，parliament，people，nation，feudal，vassal，prince，peer，duke，count，baron，justice，just，judge，jury，court，suit，sue，defendant，plea，plead，fee，accuse，crime，felony，traitor，damage，dower，heritage，property，Joy，pleasure，delight，ease，comfort，flower，fruit，leisure，chase，sport，cards，dice，partner，suit，trump，ace，deuce.

3. compounding

Its a combination of two or more words which functions as a single word， i.e. Compound noun， lifeboat， shellfish， wallpaper. Compound adjective： man-made， duty-free， heart-broken， worn-out. There are many other similar examples， such as daydreaming， window shopping， everlasting， ocean-going， record-breaking， peace loving， and so on.

Compound preposition： into ， throughout ， without. Compound verb： sky-dive ， babysit. Besides， English compounds can be analyzed according to different criteria. According to orthographic criterion， compounds are written in three ways： ①solid： i.e. bedtime， newspaper， horseback ②hyphenated：i.e. above-mentioned， part-time， good-looking， second-hand ③open：i.e. reading material， black sea， black sheep.

4. Blending

Its combining parts of other words . Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word or by joining the initial parts of the two words .

i.e. channel + tunnel → chunnel. situation + comedy→ sitcom. teleprinter + exchanger→ telex. communication + satellite→ comsat. smoke + fog → smog. motor +hotel → motel. news broadcast→newscast. television broadcast→telecast. helicopter airport→heliport.

5. Abbreviation

Abbreviation is also called clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form ， often in casual speech.

（1）截頭

telephone→phone aeroplane→plane

omnibus→bus discotheque→disco

（2）去尾

mathematics→maths executive→exec

co-operate→co-op discotheque→disco

（3）截頭去尾

influenza→flu refrigerator→fridge

6. Backformation

Backformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.逆生法（Backformation）是英語構(gòu)詞法的一種類型。Backformation這個術(shù)語是Sir Jamos Murray于1887年創(chuàng)造的（Jesperson在1894年寫的一篇文章中將這種構(gòu)詞方法稱之為Substruction），它有多種譯名：逆生法、逆成法、逆序法、反成法、逆造法、逆構(gòu)詞法、逆序造詞、例反構(gòu)詞、等等。形成逆生詞的原形詞可分三類：

（1）名詞 i.e.

stoker >stoke emotion >emote beggar >beg

由逆生法構(gòu)成的復(fù)合動詞：

◆ i.e. caretaker > caretake

◆ air-conditioning > air-condition

（2）形容詞

i.e. lazy >laze greedy >greed gloomy >gloom

peevish（易怒的） > peeve

（3）以副詞后綴-ling結(jié)尾的詞

◆ eg. sidling （側(cè)面，斜看）>sidle （側(cè)身而行）

darkling >darkle

◆ 以上例證中的逆生詞多半由名詞包括復(fù)合名詞構(gòu)成。在現(xiàn)代英語中，由形容詞或副詞轉(zhuǎn)成的逆生詞的例子并不多。

◆ 大多逆生詞都是動詞，其他詞類很少見，如用作形容詞的逆生詞：utterly >utter

7. Acronyms（首尾字母縮略法）

Some new words ，known as acronyms， are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. （首尾字母縮略法，即用單詞首尾字母組成一個新詞。讀音主要有兩種形式，即各字母分別讀音；作為一個單詞讀音。）

i.e. compact disk→CD . video cassette recorder →VCR， radio detecting and ranging →radar. World Trade Organization→ WTO. very important person→VIP （讀字母音）要人；大人物television→TV （讀字母音）電視Testing of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL托福

8. Derivation

Derivation shows the relationship between roots and affixes. （affix refers to letters or sounds which changes the meaning or functions of the words.） 在詞根前面加前綴或在詞根后面加后綴構(gòu)成一個與原單詞意義相近或截然相反的新詞叫作派生法。

（1）前綴。除少數(shù)前綴外，前綴一般改變單詞的意義，不改變詞性；后綴一般改變詞類，而不引起詞義的變化。

1）表示否定意義的前綴常用的有dis-， il-， im-， in-， ir-， mis-， non-， un-等，在單詞的前面加這類前綴常構(gòu)成與該詞意義相反的新詞。例如：

appear出現(xiàn)→disappear消失

correct正確的→incorrect不正確的

2）表示其他意義的前綴常用的有a-（多構(gòu)成表語形容詞）， anti- （反對；抵抗）， auto- （自動）， co- （共同）， en- （使）， inter- （互相）， re- （再；又）， sub- （下面的；次；?。?， tele- （強調(diào)距離）等。例如：

alone單獨的 antigas防毒氣的

cooperate合作 enjoy使高興

internet互聯(lián)網(wǎng) reuse再用

（2）后綴。英語單詞不僅可以通過加前綴構(gòu)成新詞，也可加后綴構(gòu)成新詞。后綴通常會改變單詞的詞性，構(gòu)成意義相近的其他詞性；少數(shù)后綴還會改變詞義，變?yōu)榕c原來詞義相反的新詞。

1）構(gòu)成名詞的后綴常用的有-ence，-（e）r/ -or ，-ese，-ess，-ful （一……），-ian，-ist，-ment，-ness，-tion。例如：

differ→difference write→writer

Japan→Japanese act→actress

mouth→mouthful music→musician

2）構(gòu)成動詞的后綴常用的有-（e）n （多用于形容詞之后），-fy （使……化），-ize （使……成為）。例如：

wide→widen beauty→beautify

pure→purify real→realize

3）構(gòu)成形容詞的后綴常用的有-al，

-able （有能力的），-（a）n（某國人的），-en （多用于表示材料的名詞后），-ern （方向的），-ese（某國人的），-ful，-（ic）al，-ish，-ive，-less （表示否定），-like （像……的），-ly，-ous，-some，-y （表示天氣）等。例如：

nature→natural east→eastern

reason→reasonable gold→golden

4）構(gòu)成副詞的常用后綴有-ly （主要用于形容詞之后表示方式或程度），-ward（s） （主要用于表示方位的詞之后表示方向）。例如：

angry→angrily to→towards east→eastward

5）構(gòu)成數(shù)詞的后綴有-teen （十幾），-ty （幾十），-th （構(gòu)成序數(shù)詞）。例如：

six→sixteen→sixteenth four→forty→fortiethyn

9. Conversion

Conversion refers to a change in function of a word . It occurs mostly between nouns and adjectives.

For example，①A number of nouns can be used as verbs， such as in the following sentences or phrases： He is papering the bedroom walls. gold ring、To pocket the money. Please hand me the book. She nursed her husband back to health. We lunched together. ②many verbs can be used as nouns ，too. For instance， Let's go out for a walk. He is a man of strong build. Let's have a swim. ③few adjectives can also be transformed to verbs. i.e. We will try our best to better our living conditions. ④few adverbs can also be transferred to be a noun. Murder will out. ⑤few adjectives can also be transformed to nouns. i.e. Some adjectives such as “old， young， poor， rich， wounded， injured”，which can be combined with “the” means a group of people：The old in our village are living a happy life.

10. coinage

Coinage is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for a company's product which become general terms for any version of that product ，such as words like aspirin， nylon， Xerox， Kodak， coke.

Above all， I believe that its helpful for us to memorize the new words and understand the meaning of them. As long as we can grasp the word-formation.