吳珈悅 劉錦林 吳尙純 張維宏
1.上海交通大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院附屬仁濟(jì)醫(yī)院(200127);2.西安交通大學(xué)公共政策與管理學(xué)院;3.國(guó)家衛(wèi)生計(jì)生委科學(xué)技術(shù)研究所;4.比利時(shí)根特大學(xué)國(guó)際生殖健康中心
正常妊娠間隔不僅可以減少母親的并發(fā)癥和死亡率,對(duì)于新生兒預(yù)后也起到積極的保護(hù)作用[1]。世界衛(wèi)生組織(WHO)在2005年提倡的妊娠間隔為至少24個(gè)月[2],所以產(chǎn)后及時(shí)采取有效的避孕措施,對(duì)于產(chǎn)婦和新生兒的健康至關(guān)重要。目前隨著國(guó)內(nèi)“全面兩孩”政策的放開,如何規(guī)范選擇合適的產(chǎn)后長(zhǎng)效可逆避孕措施成為臨床熱點(diǎn)問題。產(chǎn)后避孕方法的選擇受到諸多因素的影響,包括婦女的疾病史、生理狀態(tài)、哺乳狀況以及個(gè)人及家庭偏好[3]。本綜述主要介紹當(dāng)前國(guó)際上一些常用的產(chǎn)后避孕方法,為臨床醫(yī)生提供指導(dǎo)意見。
對(duì)于未哺乳婦女而言,其排卵平均恢復(fù)時(shí)間約在產(chǎn)后45~94天,最早為產(chǎn)后25天[4-5]。將近50%的婦女在產(chǎn)后第一次隨訪(產(chǎn)后6周)之前已經(jīng)恢復(fù)排卵,60%~75%的婦女在產(chǎn)后第一次月經(jīng)來潮之前恢復(fù)排卵[4,6-7]。故產(chǎn)后第一次月經(jīng)來潮并不能作為先前有否排卵的指標(biāo),應(yīng)在產(chǎn)后3周內(nèi)采取有效的避孕措施[8]。對(duì)于哺乳婦女,由于催乳素對(duì)促性腺激素釋放激素的抑制而延遲恢復(fù)排卵[9],但排卵的抑制受到多因素的影響,包括母乳喂養(yǎng)的模式(全母乳喂養(yǎng)、混合喂養(yǎng))、營(yíng)養(yǎng)、地理環(huán)境、社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)因素等[10-11],尤其是混合喂養(yǎng)增加了排卵的發(fā)生率。故即使在閉經(jīng)的婦女中,也有超過50%的婦女在產(chǎn)后6周內(nèi)已經(jīng)恢復(fù)了排卵。因此,依靠哺乳作為產(chǎn)后避孕方式是不可靠的,哺乳期婦女需要采取避孕措施。
本文通過MEDLINE及EMBASE數(shù)據(jù)庫搜索2017年1月以前國(guó)際發(fā)表的有關(guān)產(chǎn)后避孕英文文獻(xiàn),通過分析及比較選取了包括WHO及美國(guó)疾病預(yù)防控制中心(CDC)最新指南在內(nèi)的71篇英文參考文獻(xiàn),其中主要涉及的產(chǎn)后避孕方法有:絕育術(shù)、屏障避孕、放置宮內(nèi)節(jié)育器(IUD)、單純?cè)屑に睾蛷?fù)方雌孕激素避孕方法,以及一些特定人群的產(chǎn)后避孕。
2.1.1 IUD 放置IUD是一種常用、安全、高效的避孕方法。根據(jù)其產(chǎn)后放置時(shí)間可分為產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置(胎盤剝離后10min內(nèi))、產(chǎn)后延遲放置(產(chǎn)后數(shù)小時(shí)后)以及產(chǎn)后間期放置(產(chǎn)后4周以上)[12]。WHO建議哺乳期婦女在產(chǎn)后4~6周后放置左炔諾孕酮IUD,因?yàn)樵屑に乜赡軙?huì)影響泌乳[13]。但CDC卻并沒有限制左炔諾孕酮IUD的放置時(shí)間[14]。產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置IUD對(duì)于無IUD禁忌證的婦女是一種便捷、高效、安全的產(chǎn)后避孕方法,尤其是產(chǎn)后隨訪困難的婦女[15],但由于其衛(wèi)生經(jīng)濟(jì)原因未能廣泛開展[16]。目前應(yīng)用最廣泛的產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置的IUD是TCu380A,而左炔諾孕酮IUD的應(yīng)用也有 較 多 報(bào) 道[12,17-21]。 研 究 顯 示 產(chǎn) 后 即 時(shí) 放 置IUD并不增加感染率、子宮穿孔、產(chǎn)后出血及子宮復(fù)舊不良的發(fā)生率[22-23]。產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置IUD的最大缺點(diǎn)是IUD 脫 落 率 較 高,為 8% ~51%[12,17-21,24-25]。 一些研究報(bào)道產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置IUD,其脫落率比產(chǎn)后延遲放置低,但仍然高于產(chǎn)后間期放置的脫落率[12,19-20,26]。剖 宮 產(chǎn) 術(shù) 后 即 時(shí) 放 置IUD 的 脫 落 率要低于順產(chǎn)后放置[12]。一項(xiàng)隨機(jī)研究比較了左炔諾孕酮IUD產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置(產(chǎn)后10min內(nèi))與產(chǎn)后間期放置(產(chǎn)后6~8周內(nèi))的脫落率,結(jié)果顯示即時(shí)放置與間期放置脫落率分別為24%和4.4%(P=0.008),與其他研究結(jié)果一致[12,18]。另一項(xiàng)研究比較了不同時(shí)間點(diǎn)放置IUD 12個(gè)月的脫落率,即時(shí)放置(10min內(nèi))、早期放置(10min~72h)、間期放置(6周以上)的脫落率分別為14.3%,18.6%和3.8%[27]。但即使將脫落率這個(gè)缺點(diǎn)考慮在內(nèi),由于產(chǎn)后即時(shí)放置的時(shí)效性、便捷性,IUD的續(xù)用率還是最高的[20]。IUD的不良事件包括疼痛、出血、感染、穿孔等,這些不良事件的發(fā)生率與放置時(shí)間無關(guān)[12,19]。TCu380A和左炔諾孕酮IUD均可以在哺乳期婦女中安全使用[13-14]。TCu380A不影響乳汁分泌的數(shù)量和質(zhì)量[28]。目前,并沒有直接證據(jù)表明此類IUD會(huì)影響乳汁分泌的質(zhì)量和數(shù)量。一項(xiàng)納入60 000名婦女的研究顯示,無論是TCu380A還是左炔諾孕酮IUD,哺乳期放置IUD的子宮穿孔率高于非哺乳期(RR=6.1,95%CI 3.6~10.1),但由于穿孔的絕對(duì)數(shù)量很低,故該研究的臨床意義有限[29]。
2.1.2 單純?cè)屑に乇茉蟹椒ǎ诜茉兴?、注射針、皮下埋植)單純?cè)屑に乇茉蟹▽?duì)于凝血狀態(tài)、血壓和血脂的影響幾乎為零,大樣本流行病學(xué)研究沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)其應(yīng)用會(huì)對(duì)中風(fēng)、心梗、靜脈血栓造成影響[30]。故其為婦女產(chǎn)后避孕的一個(gè)良好選擇。CDC建議,單純?cè)屑に厮幬?,包括單純?cè)屑に乜诜?、醋酸甲羥孕酮(DMPA)針劑以及依托孕烯皮下埋植劑,對(duì)于產(chǎn)后婦女,包括哺乳期婦女應(yīng)用都是安全有效的,并且可以在產(chǎn)后立即使用[14]。而WHO建議,單純?cè)屑に厮帒?yīng)該在產(chǎn)后6周后應(yīng)用,因?yàn)槟壳皼]有足夠的證據(jù)表明6周之前使用對(duì)于哺乳是安全的[13]。由于排卵可能在產(chǎn)后25天后恢復(fù),為使其避孕效果最大化,單純?cè)屑に貞?yīng)在產(chǎn)后立即應(yīng)用,并且最遲不超過產(chǎn)后3周[4]。對(duì)于哺乳期婦女,單純?cè)屑に乇茉兴幨且粋€(gè)很好的選擇,因不影響乳汁分泌的質(zhì)量和數(shù)量,且對(duì)新生兒沒有副作用[31-33],但何時(shí)開始使用孕激素避孕藥一直存有爭(zhēng)議[34]。由于孕激素撤退是激發(fā)泌乳的一個(gè)重要原因,所以理論上來講產(chǎn)后直接應(yīng)用孕激素會(huì)抑制乳汁分泌。但許多研究顯示,產(chǎn)后應(yīng)用孕激素避孕藥不但不抑制泌乳,反而會(huì)增大泌乳量[35]。與其他單純?cè)屑に乇茉蟹椒ㄏ啾?,DMPA提供效價(jià)最高的孕激素水平。目前對(duì)于DMPA的產(chǎn)后應(yīng)用研究有限,至今為止并沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)其應(yīng)用對(duì)于哺乳或者新生兒生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育的影響[31-32,36-38]。其他對(duì) 于 單 一 孕 激 素 避 孕 的 研 究,包括單純?cè)屑に乜诜幓蛘咭劳性邢┢は轮敝矂鶝]有發(fā)現(xiàn)影響哺乳及新生兒生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育的證據(jù)[31-33,39]。對(duì)于產(chǎn)后隨訪 困難、有很 大幾率 重 復(fù) 妊娠的婦女來說,產(chǎn)后立即使用單純?cè)屑に厮幨且粋€(gè)正確的選擇[13,40]。而對(duì)單純?cè)屑に厮幰灿醒芯棵鞔_指出,如果是全母乳喂養(yǎng)的婦女應(yīng)在產(chǎn)后6周使用,如果是混合喂養(yǎng)的婦女應(yīng)在產(chǎn)后3周使用[15,34,41]。大部分專家之所以推薦產(chǎn)后立即使用孕激素避孕是因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為非意愿妊娠的危害權(quán)重更大[8,34]。
2.1.3 絕育術(shù)婦女在陰道分娩或剖宮產(chǎn)后,可行雙側(cè)輸卵管結(jié)扎手術(shù)進(jìn)行絕育。陰道分娩的婦女,其結(jié)扎手術(shù)應(yīng)該在產(chǎn)后48h內(nèi)通過腹部微創(chuàng)手術(shù)完成,因?yàn)檠雍笫中g(shù)會(huì)增加手術(shù)難度及術(shù)后感染的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[42-44]。剖宮產(chǎn)婦女可以在手術(shù)中同時(shí)完成雙側(cè)輸卵管結(jié)扎手術(shù)。但如果產(chǎn)婦合并有嚴(yán)重的產(chǎn)科并發(fā)癥,如重度子癇前期、子癇、胎膜早破超過24h、嚴(yán)重的產(chǎn)前或產(chǎn)后出血、敗血癥、高熱、子宮破裂等,則結(jié)扎手術(shù)需延后進(jìn)行[13,45]。一項(xiàng)在非洲進(jìn)行的調(diào)查顯示,選擇在剖宮產(chǎn)中完成絕育術(shù)的婦女大多數(shù)有多次剖宮產(chǎn)史[46]。男性輸精管結(jié)扎是夫妻雙方要求絕育的另一種選擇。相對(duì)于女性輸卵管結(jié)扎手術(shù)來說,其具有低成本、并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率低等優(yōu)勢(shì)[47]。WHO特別強(qiáng)調(diào),所有絕育手術(shù)都需要在手術(shù)前充分告知夫妻雙方手術(shù)的不可逆性,以及其他可選擇的長(zhǎng)效可逆避孕方式,尤其對(duì)于年輕夫妻,并確保夫妻雙方充分知情同意才可以實(shí)施[13,44]。
2.1.4 雌孕激素復(fù)方避孕方法(復(fù)方口服避孕藥、避孕貼劑、陰道環(huán))復(fù)方口服避孕藥會(huì)增加育齡期健康婦女的血栓風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[47-49],而產(chǎn)后婦女的血栓風(fēng)險(xiǎn)更高,這種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)在產(chǎn)后21天開始迅速下降,并在產(chǎn)后6周恢復(fù)到正常水平。在產(chǎn)后4~6周,雖然血栓風(fēng)險(xiǎn)已經(jīng)呈下降趨勢(shì),但仍然高出正常未孕婦女的5~7倍[50]。目前報(bào)道最早的產(chǎn)后恢復(fù)排卵的時(shí)間是產(chǎn)后25天,故WHO及CDC均建議產(chǎn)后非哺乳婦女應(yīng)用復(fù)方避孕藥的時(shí)間不得早于產(chǎn)后21天[51-52]。而且這些婦女應(yīng)不存在與產(chǎn)后血栓相關(guān)的高危因素,包括年齡>35歲、有血栓史、血栓傾向、分娩過程中輸血、身體質(zhì)量指數(shù)(BMI)>30kg/m2、產(chǎn)后出血、吸煙、剖宮產(chǎn)、子癇(子癇前期)[16]。對(duì)于有產(chǎn)后血栓高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的非哺乳婦女來說,復(fù)方避孕藥的應(yīng)用應(yīng)在產(chǎn)后6周開始[13-14]。理論上復(fù)方避孕藥在產(chǎn)后早期會(huì)抑制催乳素從而減少乳汁分泌[16]。一些研究報(bào)道了使用復(fù)方避孕藥會(huì)引起乳汁分泌質(zhì)量和數(shù)量的下降,但對(duì)于新生兒的生長(zhǎng)發(fā)育沒有顯著的影響[53-55]。一項(xiàng)進(jìn)行了8年隨訪的研究證實(shí)在哺乳期使用復(fù)方避孕藥并不會(huì)對(duì)孩子的智力、疾病、身心健康產(chǎn)生影響[54]。CDC建議所有婦女應(yīng)該至少在產(chǎn)后21天后開始使用復(fù)方避孕藥以避免產(chǎn)后血栓發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的增加。不具有任何產(chǎn)后血栓高危因素的哺乳婦女,應(yīng)在產(chǎn)后30天后開始使用,以降低復(fù)方避孕藥帶來的乳汁減少風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[14]。但若哺乳婦女具有血栓高風(fēng)險(xiǎn),則建議其推遲到產(chǎn)后6周開始使用[14]。而WHO建議所有哺乳婦女在產(chǎn)后6周后開始使用復(fù)方避孕藥[13]。所以,在實(shí)際使用過程中應(yīng)權(quán)衡利弊以確定適合的使用時(shí)間。
2.1.5 屏障避孕和外用避孕藥無論男用避孕套或者女用避孕套均可以在產(chǎn)后性交時(shí)立即使用。其他的屏障避孕法包括陰道隔膜、宮頸帽等。但這些方法需要在產(chǎn)后6周才能使用,因?yàn)樾枰却陨称鞴倩謴?fù)至未孕的生理狀態(tài)[8,56]。若女性在惡露未盡時(shí)使用隔膜、宮頸帽、陰道海綿等屏障方法,會(huì)增加感染、敗血癥、感染性休克等風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。并且需要告知婦女,即使使用方法完全正確,這些屏障方法仍然存在較高的避孕失敗率[57]。富含潤(rùn)滑劑或者殺精劑的避孕套可以部分緩解婦女在哺乳期的陰道干澀,但殺精劑壬苯醇-9是否會(huì)在乳汁中分泌,尚未有明確的研究結(jié)果[16]。WHO指出屏障避孕方法有相對(duì)較高的避孕失敗率,故不能接受非意愿妊娠風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的女性應(yīng)謹(jǐn)慎選擇。但屏障避孕方法是一種有效防止性傳播疾病發(fā)生的手段[13]。
2.1.6 產(chǎn)后緊急避孕產(chǎn)后21天前的無保護(hù)性生活或避孕失敗者不需要采取緊急避孕措施[58],因?yàn)榕怕炎钤缭诋a(chǎn)后21天恢復(fù)。TCu380AIUD即時(shí)放置可以作為產(chǎn)后4周的緊急避孕措施[13-14]。CDC和WHO建議單純?cè)屑に厮幙梢宰鳛楫a(chǎn)后緊急避孕藥使用,并且對(duì)哺乳期婦女是安全的[13-14]。
特定人群包括青少年、HIV陽性女性、殘障人群等。這些人群由于其特殊性,產(chǎn)后避孕措施與正常人群相比有所不同。但由于相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)有限,故在此就現(xiàn)有的少量文獻(xiàn)做簡(jiǎn)單總結(jié),以引起社會(huì)關(guān)注。
2.2.1 青少年產(chǎn)后避孕青少年是產(chǎn)后避孕的重點(diǎn)
人群,研究顯示,超過1/4的青少年母親會(huì)在2年內(nèi)分娩二胎[56-60]??焖俜磸?fù)妊娠(RRPs)不僅影響新生兒的圍產(chǎn)期質(zhì)量,還造成對(duì)青少年母親的負(fù)面影[59-62]。已有研究統(tǒng)計(jì),青少年使用DMPA或其他長(zhǎng)效可逆避孕方法,其1年和2年的重復(fù)妊娠率非常低[63-65]。并且研究顯示,放置IUD和皮下埋植對(duì)于減少重復(fù)妊娠是最有效的,相比于其他避孕方法或無避孕措施的人群,其避孕效果高出35倍[66-67]。故產(chǎn)后即時(shí)使用長(zhǎng)效可逆避孕方法可以大幅度降低青少年RRPs的危害。即時(shí)產(chǎn)后避孕可以減少婦女的非意愿妊娠,以保證正常的妊娠間隔。RRPs的危害使我們更加關(guān)注產(chǎn)后避孕的重要性。在選擇產(chǎn)后避孕方法時(shí)充分宣教是非常重要的,婦女有效、及時(shí)的產(chǎn)后避孕不僅可以減少非意愿妊娠,提高婦女的身心健康狀況,對(duì)于新生兒的預(yù)后也起到積極地保護(hù)作用。
2.2.2 人類免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)陽性女性的產(chǎn)后避孕一項(xiàng)法國(guó)的調(diào)查研究顯示,HIV陽性婦女盡管沒有激素避孕和IUD使用的限制,屏障避孕仍然是她們最常用的避孕方法。由于HIV陽性女性發(fā)生非意愿妊娠,可能帶來更繁瑣的治療和不良結(jié)局,故目前倡導(dǎo)雙重保護(hù)避孕方法的建議應(yīng)當(dāng)被積極倡導(dǎo)[68]。另一項(xiàng)研究表明,復(fù)方口服避孕藥以及DMPA對(duì)于體內(nèi)HIV病毒的載體量以及CD4+T細(xì)胞的數(shù)量都沒有影響[69]。WHO建議HIV輕度感染(WHO臨床分期1、2期)女性可以安全地使用復(fù)方口服避孕藥、避孕貼劑、單純?cè)屑に乇茉蟹椒ㄒ约白笕仓Z孕酮IUD。而對(duì)于HIV中重度感染(WHO臨床分期3、4期)女性可以安全地使用復(fù)方口服避孕藥、避孕貼劑、單純?cè)屑に乇茉蟹椒?,但不建議使用左炔諾孕酮IUD,除非她們的疾病緩解至輕度臨床狀態(tài)。那些已經(jīng)放置了IUD的婦女并不一定要取出,但需要積極監(jiān)測(cè)盆腔感染的發(fā)生[13]。
2.2.3 殘障人群的產(chǎn)后避孕在大多數(shù)地區(qū),即使是發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家,殘障人士的生殖健康及避孕需求也是被忽略的。殘障女性大多沒有常規(guī)的婦產(chǎn)科檢查,因?yàn)樗麄兂31欢x為“不愿意生育”的群體。而事實(shí)上對(duì)于殘障女性,其避孕問題相對(duì)來說更為復(fù)雜,因?yàn)橐婕暗窖貉h(huán)、血栓、服藥依從性、心理健康、生活便捷、個(gè)人衛(wèi)生以及避孕藥物與其他藥物的想到作用等問題[70]??诜茉兴帉?duì)于脊柱神經(jīng)損傷、中風(fēng)、循環(huán)障礙、下肢活動(dòng)受限的人群以及精神疾病的患者是禁用的。精神疾病患者可考慮使用單純?cè)屑に仄は侣裰病UD對(duì)于感官功能受損的患者是禁用的,因?yàn)檫@些患者可能無法感覺疼痛以至于掩蓋盆腔感染或者異位妊娠的癥狀。對(duì)于使用抗凝藥、血液疾病的患者IUD也是禁用的。需要注意的是IUD可能會(huì)引起不規(guī)則的陰道出血,從而導(dǎo)致行動(dòng)不便的殘障女性的個(gè)人衛(wèi)生問題。屏障避孕方法適用于自己(性伴侶)有能力正確使用的人群,并且其可以降低性傳播疾病的發(fā)生。在一些醫(yī)療需要的環(huán)境中絕育手術(shù)可以考慮。臨床醫(yī)生需要提高對(duì)殘障人群的生殖健康關(guān)注程度,同樣要注意其性暴力和性虐待的發(fā)生[71]。
產(chǎn)后短期內(nèi)妊娠不僅增加母親的并發(fā)癥和死亡率,更嚴(yán)重影響新生兒的預(yù)后。故產(chǎn)后及時(shí)并規(guī)范地選擇長(zhǎng)效可逆避孕方法對(duì)婦女的生殖健康十分重要。目前國(guó)際上常用的產(chǎn)后避孕方法包括絕育手術(shù)、屏障避孕、放置IUD、單純?cè)屑に睾痛圃屑に貜?fù)方避孕等。這些方法各有利弊且其適應(yīng)證各有不同。臨床醫(yī)生與婦女應(yīng)當(dāng)在充分了解各種方法的基礎(chǔ)上,結(jié)合自身情況和需要,及時(shí)地選擇合適規(guī)范的產(chǎn)后措施,以減少非意愿妊娠的發(fā)生。
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