——江學(xué)成 張燕燕 徐德朋
美國醫(yī)生意外殺死患者比槍手多9 000倍[1],是死亡的第三大原因[2-5],導(dǎo)致死亡的病例每年約400 000~440 000人[3,5-8],這種狀況近30年來未見改善[9-10]。不僅美國如此,全球其他國家也有類似情況甚至更糟[11-12]。這種狀況呼吁和警示業(yè)界,對可預(yù)防性醫(yī)療不良事件(Preventable Adverse Events,PAEs)和可預(yù)防性死亡(Preventable Deaths,PDs)應(yīng)引起重視。本研究回顧了歐美國家對PAEs和PDs的研究現(xiàn)狀,以資借鑒。
美國醫(yī)療改善機(jī)構(gòu)和哈佛醫(yī)療實(shí)踐研究學(xué)者將醫(yī)療不良事件(Adverse Events,AEs)定義為由不適當(dāng)診療和管理行為(而不是患者病情)對患者造成的傷害或病情惡化、殘疾、住院時間延長或死亡的未預(yù)期事件[13]。不適當(dāng)診療和管理行為指采用不適當(dāng)?shù)脑\療措施或沒有正確地執(zhí)行適當(dāng)?shù)脑\療措施,如誤診誤治、漏診漏治、藥物不良事件、過度診療和不作為等。醫(yī)療實(shí)踐和文獻(xiàn)中經(jīng)常用到醫(yī)療差錯(Medical Errors,MEs;Medical Mismakes,MMs)或醫(yī)療事故(Medical Malpractices,MMs),美國醫(yī)學(xué)研究所對其定義與AEs類似[14]。嚴(yán)格意義上來說,AEs和MEs是有區(qū)別的。MEs是人為錯誤,AEs中有部分可理解為是MEs的結(jié)果,但有一部分與MEs不一定有因果關(guān)系。對于前者,如果立即采取適當(dāng)措施,AEs是可以避免或預(yù)防的,稱為PAEs。由PAEs引起的死亡稱為PDs或可避免性死亡(Avoidable Deaths)。PAEs 和PDs是研究和評價醫(yī)療質(zhì)量及管理的重要指標(biāo)。
容易混淆的術(shù)語還有藥物不良事件(Adverse Drug Events,ADEs)。ADEs是指藥物治療過程中或過程后出現(xiàn)的臨床不良事件。ADEs屬于AEs的一種亞類型。ADEs和藥品不良反應(yīng)(Adverse Drug Reaction,ADR)含義不同,后者是指因果關(guān)系已確定的反應(yīng)。ADEs與藥物副作用(Adverse Drug Effect;Side Effect)也不同,藥物副作用是指治療作用以外的作用。Medication Errors(ME)則指用藥錯誤。
1982年,紀(jì)錄片“Deep Sleep”報道了美國因麻醉用藥錯誤導(dǎo)致6 000多人死亡,并認(rèn)為這些死亡是完全可以預(yù)防的,引起了社會震驚[15]。Brennan等于1984年在紐約州51所醫(yī)院隨機(jī)抽調(diào)30 195份住院病歷,AEs發(fā)生率為3.7%,導(dǎo)致死亡率為13.6%,并有足夠證據(jù)表明58%的AEs和死亡是可以預(yù)防的。1999年,美國醫(yī)學(xué)研究所根據(jù)這一結(jié)果進(jìn)行估計,以美國住院患者每年3 360萬人(1997年)推算,每年因AEs死亡約98 000例[14,16-17]。自此以后,患者安全得到了廣泛關(guān)注,研究文獻(xiàn)由每年不足30篇增加至500多篇[2]。然而,Classen等認(rèn)為美國醫(yī)學(xué)研究所低估了AEs的真實(shí)情況,AEs發(fā)生率超過其估計的10倍(2011年)[9],PDs超過4倍(2013年),美國每年因AEs死亡人數(shù)約為210 000人~440 000人,是第三大死因,僅次于心臟病和癌癥[3,6,8-9]。值得注意的是,這些研究和報告都不包括醫(yī)院以外因AEs導(dǎo)致的死亡,如門診、家庭、療養(yǎng)院等。在創(chuàng)傷救治、老年患者以及用藥等重要范圍,PAEs和PDs的發(fā)生率更高[16,18-25]。
除了死亡和傷害外,AEs引起的醫(yī)療費(fèi)用消耗也是巨大的。 2011年的一項(xiàng)研究表明,因AEs直接消耗經(jīng)費(fèi)每年約170億美元。 根據(jù)2012年醫(yī)療保健金融雜志計算的間接成本,包括對個人和家庭以及醫(yī)護(hù)人員支付的物力、財力、日常影響等,這筆開銷每年共計近1萬億美元。
近30年來,AEs發(fā)生尤其是PAEs或PDs發(fā)生率并未隨著醫(yī)學(xué)現(xiàn)代化推進(jìn)和發(fā)展以及患者安全方面的努力而有所改善。根據(jù)世界衛(wèi)生組織統(tǒng)計,醫(yī)療風(fēng)險幾率是1/300。這個數(shù)字是基于全球AEs的發(fā)生率。需要特別強(qiáng)調(diào)的是,發(fā)展中國家比發(fā)達(dá)國家的風(fēng)險高20倍。據(jù)英國一項(xiàng)最新研究發(fā)現(xiàn),全球每年住院患者約4.21億人次,其中發(fā)生AEs近4 300萬次,高收入國家約有1 680萬次,低中等收入國家約有2 590萬次[12]。
AEs發(fā)生原因很多,80%以上涉及人為錯誤。Gawande等[26]對3家醫(yī)院手術(shù)引起的146件AEs分析顯示,70%是由兩個或兩個以上醫(yī)生所為。系統(tǒng)或管理因素依次是缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn)/能力(53%),溝通障礙(43%),疲勞或工作過度負(fù)載(33%),監(jiān)督不到位(21%),設(shè)備故障(15%);主觀認(rèn)知因素依次為判斷錯誤(63%),麻痹大意(49%)。Brennan等指出[16-17],27.6%的 AEs是由醫(yī)療過失引起的。從結(jié)局來看,醫(yī)療過失引起AEs更嚴(yán)重,發(fā)生更頻繁。在醫(yī)療過失引起的AEs中,短期傷害占22.2%,永久傷害占34.4%,死亡占51.3%。醫(yī)療過失引起AEs在診斷錯誤(75%)、無創(chuàng)性操作錯誤(77%)和急診室(70%)中發(fā)生率最高。
概括而論,最常見的AEs類型為手術(shù)相關(guān)(20%~70%)、診斷錯誤(12%~30%)、藥物不良事件(15%~66%)和院內(nèi)感染(10%~30%)等[20-21,26-27],與手術(shù)有關(guān)的AEs發(fā)生率最高[17,21-22]。不同手術(shù)發(fā)生AEs的頻率不同,常見手術(shù)相關(guān)AEs發(fā)生率依次為子宮切除術(shù)、脊柱手術(shù)、CABG /瓣膜置換術(shù)、經(jīng)陰道分娩術(shù)、膽囊切除術(shù)、膝/髖關(guān)節(jié)置換術(shù)、剖宮產(chǎn)[20]。Teixeira等稱,在創(chuàng)傷救治中,治療延遲占52.9%,臨床判斷錯誤占21.6%, 漏診占11.8%,技術(shù)錯誤占7.8%, 其他錯誤占5.9%[28]。Eyi等對592份尸檢報告的分析發(fā)現(xiàn),65.3%死亡因過失,58.3%因治療延遲,10.0%因臨床判斷失誤和漏診誤診。在創(chuàng)傷患者中,對氣道、出血、氣胸、顱內(nèi)高壓、多臟器功能不全、心跳呼吸驟停等處理最常出錯[29]。
AEs還與學(xué)科或工作特點(diǎn)有關(guān)。手術(shù)室、急診室、ICU和用藥是AEs高發(fā)場所。手術(shù)室、普通病房、急診室和院外護(hù)理單位的AEs發(fā)生率比其他場所高十?dāng)?shù)倍。除產(chǎn)房外,在住院患者中,AEs更易引起嚴(yán)重傷害,預(yù)后較差,其中包括死亡[17]。Gawande等[26]就AEs發(fā)生時間等屬性進(jìn)行了觀察,急診醫(yī)療過程為23%,非急診醫(yī)療過程為77%;白天(7:00-17:00)為60%,夜間(17:00-次日7:00)為40%;發(fā)生于術(shù)前為27%,術(shù)中為66%,術(shù)后為22%。Andres等[30]對外科和內(nèi)科發(fā)生AEs進(jìn)行比較發(fā)現(xiàn),手術(shù)和操作相關(guān)AEs以及院內(nèi)感染發(fā)生率外科顯著低于內(nèi)科,外科藥物不良事件高于內(nèi)科,院內(nèi)感染發(fā)生率內(nèi)科高于外科,治療和護(hù)理以及診斷相關(guān)AEs發(fā)生率內(nèi)外科類似;有趣的是,內(nèi)外科PAEs比率差別不大,分別為41.3%和44.1%。
AEs嚴(yán)重程度通常以無傷害、微傷害、輕度傷害、中度傷害、嚴(yán)重傷害和致命傷害(死亡)進(jìn)行分級和評估[8,31-32]。
Leape等[17]對51家醫(yī)院98 610例AEs的結(jié)局進(jìn)行分析,微傷害占56.8%,輕度傷害占13.7%,中度傷害占2.8%,嚴(yán)重傷害占3.9%,致命傷害占2.6%,死亡占13.6%,不可判斷傷害占6.6%。Sousa等的研究結(jié)果與之類似[21,30,33]。Ander等[30]表示,約31.4%的AEs導(dǎo)致住院時間延長,每例平均延長6.1天,其中66.3%需要額外手術(shù),69.9%需要額外診療。在門診患者中,23.4%的AEs導(dǎo)致入院。AEs類型與結(jié)局也有密切關(guān)系,與手術(shù)、用藥、操作(導(dǎo)管、內(nèi)鏡、介入)、診斷及管理相關(guān)的AEs永久性傷害和死亡高于其他類型[22]。
65歲以上患者不僅PAEs發(fā)生率高,而且更加嚴(yán)重[17,30]。65歲以上患者短期傷害、永久性傷害和死亡分別為89.9%、8.7%和10.4%;65歲以下患者分別為89.55%、5.8%和4.7%[34]。Zegers等報告[22]稱,AEs引起永久性傷害和死亡率隨年齡增加而增加。
AEs和死亡的可預(yù)防程度評估方法相同。以死亡的可預(yù)防程度評估為例,通常分為3類,即:(1)可預(yù)防性死亡(Preventable Deaths,PDs),如果當(dāng)時采取適當(dāng)措施,可以避免死亡;(2)潛在(部分)可預(yù)防性死亡(Potentially Preventable Deaths,PPDs),死亡與AEs有部分因果關(guān)系;(3)不可預(yù)防性死亡(No-Preventable Deaths,NPDs),采用最好技術(shù)也不能避免死亡。
其實(shí),AEs類型之間預(yù)防程度是有差別的,不同類型AEs的可預(yù)防程度明顯不同。在綜合病例中,用藥、診斷、治療和臨床管理相關(guān)的AEs可預(yù)防程度分別為100%、89%、80%和60%[21-22,30,34]。對外科9 171件手術(shù)相關(guān)AEs可預(yù)防程度評估顯示,可預(yù)防程度>50%的手術(shù)相關(guān)AEs依次為診斷錯誤/延遲(100%)、不適當(dāng)治療(100%)、術(shù)后出血(85%)、不能分類損傷(73%)、技術(shù)相關(guān)并發(fā)癥(68%)、產(chǎn)后/新生兒相關(guān)問題(67%)、獲得性肺炎(65%)、非手術(shù)操作傷害(59%)、非感染性傷口問題(53%)[34]。Zegers等[22]強(qiáng)調(diào)幾乎所有與診斷有關(guān)的AEs都是可預(yù)防的。手術(shù)開錯患者、開錯部位、器材遺留體腔等均屬于杜絕事件。Marquet等的研究[21,24]顯示,藥物不良事件涉及環(huán)節(jié)較多,發(fā)生率較高,但可預(yù)防程度也很高。Zegers等[22]還認(rèn)為提前出院(100%)、跌倒(81%)等類似不良事件也幾乎都是可以預(yù)防的。
由于視角和表述方法不同,以及醫(yī)療環(huán)境的特殊性,國內(nèi)文獻(xiàn)未檢索到同類資料。我們從中能夠體會以下幾點(diǎn):一是“以人為本”和“患者至上”的安全文化精神;二是科學(xué)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)和實(shí)事求是的研究態(tài)度;三是有比較才有差別,有交流才有促進(jìn),有回顧才有前進(jìn),向失敗和錯誤學(xué)習(xí),也是改善和成功之道。
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