【摘要】內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞既是各種外界刺激和體液介質(zhì)的靶細(xì)胞,又具有非?;钴S的代謝功能,能分泌多種活性物質(zhì)調(diào)節(jié)血管舒張,參與炎癥反應(yīng)以及血液凝固等過程。作為內(nèi)源性多肽激素,Apelin可通過影響NO的利用、調(diào)節(jié)氧化應(yīng)激、影響血小板功能、促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞增殖遷移及血管生成等多種途徑影響內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞功能,維護(hù)循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的健康,在心血管疾病的診療中具備一定的前景。鑒于Apelin對內(nèi)皮功能障礙的多維影響,現(xiàn)以Apelin為核心對其在心血管疾病的作用、機(jī)制及應(yīng)用前景進(jìn)行綜述。
【關(guān)鍵詞】內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞;Apelin;心血管疾病
【DOI】10.16806/j.cnki.issn.1004-3934.2024.10.012
Research Progress and Application Prospects of Apelin in Cardiovascular Diseases Associated with Endothelial Dysfunction
WANG Yu,SHU Junhua,GAN Yi,TU Danna
(Department of Pediatrics,Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province,Tongji Medical College,Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan 430070,Hubei,China)
【Abstract】Endothelial cells not only serve as target cells for various external stimuli and body fluids,but also have highly active metabolic functions.They can secrete plenty of active substances to regulate vasodilation,participate in inflammation reactions,and blood coagulation processes.Apelin,an endogenous peptide hormone,impacts endothelial function via nitric oxide utilization,oxidative stress regulation,platelet function,endothelial cell proliferation andmigration,angiogenesis and so on.Apelin maintains the health of the circulatory system and holds promise in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.Therefore,this article will review the association between Apelin and endothelial dysfunction,and its role,mechanism,and prospects in cardiovascular diseases.In view of the multidimensional influence of Apelin on endothelial dysfunction,this article reviews its role,mechanism and application prospect in cardiovascular diseases with Apelin as the core.
【Keywords】Endothelial cell;Apelin;Cardiovascular disease
內(nèi)皮功能障礙是指內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞(endothelial cell,EC)在調(diào)節(jié)血管功能、保持血液流動性和調(diào)控炎癥反應(yīng)等方面出現(xiàn)異常,它與多種心血管疾病如高血壓、動脈粥樣硬化(atherosclerosis,AS)、冠心病、糖尿病并發(fā)癥、血栓性疾病等密切相關(guān)。Apelin是一種內(nèi)源性多肽激素,與G蛋白耦聯(lián)受體血管緊張素Ⅱ1型受體相關(guān)蛋白(angiotensin Ⅱreceptor-like 1,APJ)組成Apelin/APJ系統(tǒng),參與調(diào)節(jié)內(nèi)皮功能,并在心血管系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮重要作用。
1 Apelin的分布及生理功能
Apelin是Xq25~26.1染色體上的基因編碼,包含Apelin-36、Apelin-13、[Pyr1]-Glu-Apelin-13、Apelin-17和Apelin-12等多個活性片段[1]。Apelin不同亞型在結(jié)構(gòu)與功能上大致相似,但在分布、與受體結(jié)合的親和力以及生物學(xué)活性上卻有所不同[2]。
Apelin/APJ在心血管系統(tǒng)尤其在EC中高度表達(dá),可調(diào)節(jié)血壓、促進(jìn)血管生成、增加心肌收縮力等,在內(nèi)皮功能障礙相關(guān)疾病中發(fā)揮重要作用[1]。
2 Apelin/APJ系統(tǒng)與內(nèi)皮功能障礙的關(guān)聯(lián)
病理情況下,EC中NO的生成能力和敏感性降低,活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)生成增加,血管通透性改變,血管內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)失衡,血管壁易發(fā)生炎癥、形成血栓,其順應(yīng)性降低,同時血管生成也會出現(xiàn)異常,即發(fā)生內(nèi)皮功能障礙[3]。
2.1 Apelin對內(nèi)皮型一氧化氮合酶-NO軸的影響
NO有維持血管穩(wěn)態(tài)、減少白細(xì)胞黏附及趨化、抑制血小板黏附和聚集、促進(jìn)血管生成、調(diào)節(jié)血壓等功能[3],因此它的減少和生物利用度降低將導(dǎo)致其心臟保護(hù)性作用下降,而Apelin通過促進(jìn)NO生成和釋放以改善內(nèi)皮功能障礙。在AS初期,內(nèi)皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase,eNOS)生物活性下降,誘導(dǎo)NO生成減少,且L-精氨酸耗竭致使eNOS介導(dǎo)的ROS生成增加,NO生物利用度降低[4]。而Apelin通過上調(diào)eNOS mRNA與蛋白質(zhì)表達(dá),磷酸化蛋白激酶B和AMP活化的蛋白質(zhì)激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase,AMPK)誘導(dǎo)eNOS激活,共同激活L-精氨酸/一氧化氮合酶/NO通路,促進(jìn)NO產(chǎn)生[5]。
2.2 Apelin對氧化應(yīng)激和炎癥的影響
氧化應(yīng)激和炎癥的持續(xù)存在是引起EC功能障礙的主要觸發(fā)因素。而Apelin/APJ系統(tǒng)具有抗氧化應(yīng)激、抗細(xì)胞凋亡和抗炎作用。Apelin/APJ系統(tǒng)通過促分裂原活化的蛋白質(zhì)激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK)/胞外信號調(diào)節(jié)激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase,ERK)和AMPK通路促進(jìn)抗氧化酶表達(dá),并通過AMPK通路抑制促氧化酶表達(dá)[6]。Xu等[7]還證實外源性Apelin能抑制相關(guān)炎癥因子的表達(dá),防止內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)過度激活,減少炎癥細(xì)胞和線粒體腫脹的數(shù)量。
在載脂蛋白E(apolipoprotein E,ApoE)基因缺陷AS小鼠模型中,Apelin可增加NO生物利用度,減少ROS的產(chǎn)生,減輕氧化應(yīng)激損傷從而抑制AS進(jìn)展,穩(wěn)定AS斑塊[8]。ROS可導(dǎo)致NO失活,進(jìn)而對血管舒張產(chǎn)生不利影響,導(dǎo)致內(nèi)皮功能障礙和高血壓。Apelin降低血壓的主要機(jī)制是當(dāng)EC完整時促進(jìn)eNOS磷酸化,增加NO釋放,促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮依賴性血管舒張[9]。而當(dāng)內(nèi)皮功能受損時,Apelin與平滑肌細(xì)胞上APJ結(jié)合,使血管收縮,進(jìn)而引起血壓升高[10]。在缺血再灌注損傷中,線粒體ROS的釋放增多,而Apelin可通過激活eNOS,促進(jìn)NO釋放,降低過氧化氫濃度,抑制線粒體氧化損傷和脂質(zhì)過氧化,發(fā)揮心肌保護(hù)作用[11]。
2.3 Apelin對血小板功能的影響
Apelin/APJ在血小板中有表達(dá),可抑制血小板活化、影響血小板聚集,從而調(diào)控血栓形成[12]。Apelin不同亞型對血小板功能和血栓形成調(diào)控有所差異。Apelin-13能抑制腺苷二磷酸誘導(dǎo)的血小板聚集[2],也能抑制凝血酶和膠原蛋白誘導(dǎo)的血小板活化和聚集[13]。此外,Apelin還能通過NO途徑刺激環(huán)磷酸鳥苷的高表達(dá),從而有效抑制血小板活化,同時通過減少血栓素A2合成抑制血小板聚集,二者共同抑制血栓形成[13]。相反,Apelin-12、Apelin-17、Apelin-36可通過激活PANX1/P2X7信號通路而濃度依賴性誘導(dǎo)血小板聚集[2],其中Apelin-17還可抑制體外激活蛋白-1誘導(dǎo)的血小板活化[12]。
在個體水平上,例如心肌梗死患者,血小板活化增強(qiáng),Apelin表達(dá)水平升高,但是APJ在血小板上表達(dá)卻顯著下降[12,14]。同時,Adam等[13]發(fā)現(xiàn)通過靜脈注射外源性Apelin可延長Apelin基因缺陷小鼠的出血時間,并預(yù)防血栓形成。這些研究結(jié)果表明,Apelin的應(yīng)用可能有助于減輕血小板活化、抑制血栓形成。
2.4 Apelin/APJ系統(tǒng)促進(jìn)EC增殖遷移和血管生成
異常的EC增殖和遷移、血管生成可能導(dǎo)致如血管瘤、AS等疾病發(fā)生。Apelin可促進(jìn)EC和內(nèi)皮祖細(xì)胞增殖、遷移以及血管生成[15]。缺氧狀態(tài)時,Apelin和APJ的表達(dá)上調(diào),并通過激活下游PI3K/Akt信號通路、ERK/MAPK信號通路促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮祖細(xì)胞增殖,參與內(nèi)皮修復(fù)和新生血管的形成[16]。促進(jìn)EC增殖的機(jī)制可能涉及促進(jìn)血管內(nèi)皮生長因子表達(dá),激活p70 S6激酶通路等[16-17];而促進(jìn)EC遷移可能與激活Ras同源基因家族成員A/Rho相關(guān)蛋白激酶通路,影響血流剪切應(yīng)力誘導(dǎo)的極化等有關(guān)[5,18]。
血管生成是缺血性心臟病心臟功能改善的主要原因[19],Apelin可通過促進(jìn)血管內(nèi)皮生長因子受體2和酪氨酸激酶受體2表達(dá)[19]、激活A(yù)MPK和Akt信號傳導(dǎo)等方式促進(jìn)毛細(xì)血管樣結(jié)構(gòu)形成[20],進(jìn)而促進(jìn)心肌梗死后心肌缺血區(qū)域血管生成。相反Apelin基因缺失、應(yīng)用Apelin/APJ抑制劑的小鼠其血管生成受到抑制[21-22]。生成血管的同時Apelin還可調(diào)節(jié)心肌梗死后淋巴內(nèi)皮病理重塑,促進(jìn)心臟淋巴管的成熟和穩(wěn)定[23],降低心臟微血管EC的通透性[19],以限制心肌梗死后持續(xù)性水腫及炎癥。因此Apelin在血管重塑及相關(guān)心血管疾病方面具有一定的治療潛力。
3 以Apelin為靶點的心血管疾病治療的探索
Apelin通過活化的APJ直接作用于心臟,可降低心律失常、慢性炎癥、間質(zhì)纖維化和心臟肥大的風(fēng)險,改善心臟功能并減少心肌纖維化和異常重塑的發(fā)生。外周血中Apelin水平可作為診斷、監(jiān)測疾病治療效果、評估預(yù)后的生物標(biāo)志物。多項研究[24-27]支持Apelin在這些代償失衡患者中表達(dá)水平存在不同程度的降低。然而,在急性心肌梗死患者的血漿中,Apelin表達(dá)水平卻上升[14]。另外,研究證明冠狀動脈疾病患者血清中Apelin降低[28],手術(shù)后顯著上升;心力衰竭患者血清中Apelin水平降低,在心臟再同步化治療后上升[26]。這種雙相變化提示,可能疾病早期及有效治療后,Apelin的表達(dá)增加可抑制疾病的進(jìn)展;而晚期,Apelin及其受體的表達(dá)下降,導(dǎo)致心臟功能障礙。多項研究表明,靜脈輸注Apelin對肺動脈高壓、心力衰竭、心肌梗死等心血管疾病模型具有顯著的保護(hù)作用(見表1)。在高血壓大鼠模型中,外周靜脈輸注Apelin可在1 min內(nèi)降低血壓,效果持續(xù)為3~4 min[29]。長期皮下注射Apelin-13能抑制血管緊張素Ⅱ引起的血壓升高和心臟重構(gòu)[30]。毋庸置疑,外源性Apelin被認(rèn)為是一種有前景的心血管疾病治療藥物。
然而,Apelin在生物體內(nèi)半衰期短,為幾分鐘,且需通過靜脈給藥,限制了其作為治療藥物的使用。現(xiàn)已開發(fā)出了一些擁有更強(qiáng)生物活性和抗降解性的合成物,主要分為Apelin類似物和非肽類APJ小分子激動劑。大多數(shù)研究致力于提高Apelin化合物血漿穩(wěn)定性和APJ結(jié)合親和力,包括對裂解位點的修飾、環(huán)化,對非天然氨基酸的添加或置換,以及非肽APJ激動劑等[1]。相比于對側(cè)鏈進(jìn)行修飾,對Apelin的主鏈進(jìn)行修飾可更好地增強(qiáng)其穩(wěn)定性[38]。部分化合物如MM07、CMF-019對G蛋白信號傳導(dǎo)偏倚,減少了長期使用所致的受體下調(diào),有效預(yù)防了劑量遞增的需求以及耐藥性的產(chǎn)生[39-40]。目前僅有少數(shù)動物體內(nèi)研究評估了合成物給藥后的實際效果,但這些研究仍然為人類心血管疾病治療提出了前瞻性策略。
多種以Apelin為靶點的新型化合物表現(xiàn)出與內(nèi)源性Apelin相似的作用和更好的效力。Fernandez等[38]發(fā)現(xiàn)通過對Apelin類似物進(jìn)行修飾,特別是經(jīng)L-環(huán)己基丙氨酸或L-高精氨酸修飾后,不僅可延長半衰期,顯著增強(qiáng)其與APJ的結(jié)合力,還能提供更迅速和穩(wěn)定的正性肌力,更顯著和持久的降血壓作用。在大鼠麻醉狀態(tài)下,短期使用這些藥物,表現(xiàn)出正性肌力作用,并且基本不影響心率,這可能是由于通過激活肌球蛋白輕鏈激酶來增加肌絲鈣敏感性和積極的舒張性作用,從而實現(xiàn)增強(qiáng)心臟功能而不增加耗氧量[39-44](見表2)。然而在清醒的犬類實驗中,藥物的急性血流動力學(xué)變化遠(yuǎn)不如麻醉犬明顯,這可能是因為全身麻醉抑制了交感神經(jīng)活性[42]。因此,在合理應(yīng)用下,Apelin相關(guān)化合物可作為有效的正性肌力和抗高血壓藥,且不增加心肌的耗氧量,可能有利于改善患者的心臟功能和預(yù)后,減少死亡的發(fā)生。
部分研究[39-40]通過細(xì)胞實驗及肺動脈高壓模型有效證明了MM07、CMF-019不僅可改善心臟功能,還能促進(jìn)EC的增殖并抑制其凋亡,減輕肺小血管肌化,長期使用該化合物甚至可能逆轉(zhuǎn)肺動脈高壓。盡管目前對藥物的長期應(yīng)用研究相對較少,但現(xiàn)有的觀點仍傾向于支持長期使用Apelin類似物對心臟功能有改善作用,部分實驗結(jié)果還提示其能抑制病理性心臟重構(gòu)[39,42-43]。
4 Apelin應(yīng)用的不足與展望
盡管Apelin在內(nèi)皮功能障礙相關(guān)心血管疾病中顯示出積極作用,它的使用仍伴隨潛在風(fēng)險。有研究[45]指出Apelin在下丘腦中表達(dá),長期使用可抑制卵泡刺激素、黃體生成素等促性腺激素分泌,進(jìn)而可能導(dǎo)致不孕癥及體重增加。Apelin能有效抑制病理因素所導(dǎo)致的心臟肥大,然而在正常小鼠及心肌細(xì)胞實驗中,Apelin卻促進(jìn)了心臟及心肌細(xì)胞肥大[46],這與APJ整合Apelin和內(nèi)外刺激,從而偏向調(diào)節(jié)G蛋白信號傳導(dǎo)和β-抑制蛋白招募水平有關(guān)[47]。無論是否存在病理刺激干預(yù),G蛋白偏向的Apelin化合物都能抑制心臟肥大的發(fā)生[46]。故需探索出一種半衰期更長、親和力更高、安全性及穩(wěn)定性更佳、生物效力更顯著、G蛋白偏倚的APJ激動劑和類似物,以便更安全有效地應(yīng)用于未來臨床治療。僅有少數(shù)Apelin相關(guān)化合物進(jìn)入臨床試驗,首次人類臨床試驗[48]中提示MM07可作為有效的外周靜脈擴(kuò)張劑。隨后進(jìn)行的AMG 986試驗提示,在健康者及心力衰竭患者中短期使用該藥物有一定的心臟功能變化,但不具備臨床意義[49],且二者均表現(xiàn)出良好的安全性和耐受性。仍需更多研究以探索藥物劑型、劑量和臨床效用。
5 總結(jié)
近年來,Apelin被發(fā)現(xiàn)參與多種疾病,特別是內(nèi)皮功能障礙相關(guān)心血管疾病的發(fā)生發(fā)展。然而,由于Apelin的短半衰期以及用藥方式的限制,其藥物開發(fā)在一定程度上受限,且Apelin類似物和APJ激動劑的動物及人體研究仍存在較大的空白。此外,在不同病理條件下,部分研究結(jié)果也存在一定差異。盡管仍有許多問題亟待解決,但不可否認(rèn)的是,Apelin作為內(nèi)皮功能障礙相關(guān)心血管疾病的潛在治療靶點,具備良好的臨床研究價值及應(yīng)用前景。
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基金項目:湖北省科技創(chuàng)新項目(2021CFB558)
通信作者:涂丹娜,E-mail:tdn_tutu@163.com