張滿勝
傳統(tǒng)語法教學主要把關(guān)注的焦點放在句子層面(sentence level),主要研究單句的結(jié)構(gòu)特征,很少從語篇的角度(discourse level)來考察句子的構(gòu)造。本期筆者將從篇章角度來探討語篇對于單句的句法結(jié)構(gòu)所產(chǎn)生的影響。
請大家先來看看《經(jīng)濟學人》(The Economist)雜志中的這句話。
1. As important are its efforts to reprogram the firms culture.
這個句子結(jié)構(gòu)及句子意思該如何理解呢?有讀者給筆者提供了這樣的解讀:這是個as引導的方式狀語從句并且采用了倒裝結(jié)構(gòu),可以改成:“As its efforts to reprogram the firms culture are important.”在這里,讀者對句子采用了倒裝結(jié)構(gòu)及主語中心詞是efforts的解讀是正確的,但是關(guān)于as用法的解讀是錯誤的。
實際上,這里的as是副詞,用于修飾形容詞important,而且句子采用了倒裝,將as important置于句首了。因此,正常的句子結(jié)構(gòu)應該為:
2. Its efforts to reprogram the firms culture are as important.
還原成正常的語序之后,我們能很清楚地看到:這里的as實際上是“as … as”比較句的一部分,只不過這個句子將第二個as及其后面的比較對象都省略了。為什么這里的as及其后面的比較對象能夠省略?我們可以推斷,原因必定是該句的上文出現(xiàn)了另外一個比較對象。下面我們需要通過考察該句所在的上文語境來驗證上述推斷。
原文中有這樣的兩段內(nèi)容。
Goldmans attempts to rehabilitate its reputation have consisted in part of changing its internal rules for dealing with clients. The new rules are best summed up as Goldman playing Nanny to its clients, instead of acting as an equal to its counterparties. Almost all clients bar (除外,不計) the biggest and smartest have had limits placed (排序) on the sorts of transactions they can undertake. Municipalities, for instance, may not be allowed to buy or sell derivatives (金融衍生工具) unless these are clearly matched by an underlying interest (a loan that needs hedging [套期保值,套購保值], say). Goldman is also being more open with clients, telling them exactly how much it will earn from transactions and what different roles it may be playing.
As important are its efforts to reprogram the firms culture. As well as the hours of training—the programme is being run across the firm, and the first sessions were led by Lloyd Blankfein, Goldmans chief executive—internal incentives have been revamped. Pay and promotion are now tied more to whether employees work well in teams, for instance. There is less focus on rewarding staff for the revenue they generate.
通過這樣完整的上下文,請讀者查找一下被省略的比較對象是什么。
其實,只要我們認真閱讀兩個段落的首句就會發(fā)現(xiàn),我們所分析的句子的兩個比較對象是Goldmans attempts和its efforts,實際上這里attempts與efforts就是同義詞替換表達。由此我們可以得出這樣一個完整的“as … as”比較句。
3. Goldmans efforts to reprogram the firms culture are as important as its attempts to rehabilitate its reputation.
本句表達的意思為:“高盛公司不只是試圖挽回聲譽,同樣重要的是改革公司文化。”在接下來的一段中,作者說道:“These reforms may not be enough, however, without deeper structural changes aimed at reducing the number of conflicts, real or perceived, with which it constantly has to grapple.”這里的these reforms就是指上面兩段中的changing its internal rules for dealing with clients和to reprogram the firms culture這兩項改革。
綜上所述,在篇章閱讀中,看到“As important are its efforts …”這樣的單句,我們需要迅速地判斷出該句的句法特征:①采用了倒裝結(jié)構(gòu);②是“as … as”比較句,其中第二個as及其后面的比較對象省略了;③該句的上文語境必然出現(xiàn)了被比較的對象,從而把兩段內(nèi)容聯(lián)系起來。這就告訴我們,在閱讀英語篇章時,我們不能“只見樹木,不見森林”,不可只做單句翻譯,而是要全面地把握文章的內(nèi)在邏輯聯(lián)系。另一方面,在閱讀篇章里的單句時,即使在沒有篇章語境的情況下,我們也可以憑借自己扎實的句法功底做出上述推斷。
我們看到,“As important are its efforts to reprogram the firms culture”這個句子同時含有省略與倒裝這兩種語言構(gòu)造現(xiàn)象。下面筆者來進一步分析產(chǎn)生這些語言現(xiàn)象背后的原因。
首先我們來看省略。由上面的分析可知,這個句子之所以省略比較對象Goldmans attempts to rehabilitate its reputation,是因為這一對象在上文語境中已經(jīng)出現(xiàn),此處省略是為了避免重復。這個句子只需要通過as important就可以告知讀者,這里是在做比較,讀者可以通過上文語境推出省略的比較對象。也就是說,篇章語境促成了這個句子的省略。
然后我們來看倒裝。這個句子之所以采用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu),是因為省略比較對象之后這個句子的表語部分就只剩下as important,比較簡短,而句子主語its efforts to reprogram the firms culture是一個相對較長的名詞短語。根據(jù)英語的尾重原則,這個句子宜采用倒裝結(jié)構(gòu),即把整個表語前置到句首,而把主語放在句末,以避免頭重腳輕。也就是說,省略導致該句倒裝。
由此可見,這個句子是因為篇章語境,所以產(chǎn)生了省略,進而由于省略才導致句子的倒裝,即如下所示的連鎖反應:
篇章語境→省略→倒裝
總之,之所以出現(xiàn)“As important are its efforts …”這樣特殊結(jié)構(gòu)的句子,其根源是篇章語境。這給我們?nèi)缦聠⑹荆壕浞ńY(jié)構(gòu)的研究不能只停留在單句層面,而應該超越單句,從篇章語境這樣一個更廣闊的視角來考察句子結(jié)構(gòu)的動態(tài)變化。只有這樣,我們學到的句法規(guī)則才不是靜態(tài)的、僵化的死規(guī)則,而是靈活的、更貼近真實的語言使用語境的活思維,是一種真正意義上的思維表達。