關(guān)翩翩 李 敏

(華南理工大學(xué)工商管理學(xué)院,廣州 510641)

1 引言

隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)全球化和信息技術(shù)革命的到來(lái),激烈的市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)加劇了組織外部環(huán)境的不確定性,穩(wěn)定、安全的傳統(tǒng)雇傭關(guān)系正在被短期化、高度靈活的雇傭方式打破(Feldman & Ng,2007),職場(chǎng)的內(nèi)部動(dòng)蕩使個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展變得復(fù)雜(Eby,Butts,& Lockwood,2003; Chudzikowski,2012)。社會(huì)職業(yè)的分類(lèi)和屬性不再一成不變,組織更愿意挑選靈活性和適應(yīng)能力強(qiáng)的員工(Klehe,Zikic,van Vianen,& De Pater,2011)。與此同時(shí),新興的易變和無(wú)邊界職業(yè)生涯(Protean and Boundaryless Career)理論認(rèn)為,新時(shí)代主導(dǎo)職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展的應(yīng)該是個(gè)人而非組織,人們不再依照組織需要而是根據(jù)自身職業(yè)發(fā)展目標(biāo)來(lái)選擇雇主或工作崗位,甚至為此在不同組織間頻繁流動(dòng)(Briscoe & Hall,2006)。這種轉(zhuǎn)變,是個(gè)體從根據(jù)社會(huì)職業(yè)規(guī)范的自我組織(self-organized)向根據(jù)職業(yè)成長(zhǎng)規(guī)劃的自我延伸(self-extend)的進(jìn)步體現(xiàn),體現(xiàn)的是個(gè)體的職業(yè)生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程(Savickas,2002,2005,2013a)。

生涯建構(gòu)理論(Career Construction Theory)是近20年來(lái)西方職業(yè)心理學(xué)(vocational psychology)研究中令人矚目的一枝新秀,由美國(guó)職業(yè)輔導(dǎo)實(shí)踐與研究的資深學(xué)者 Mark L. Savickas教授在2002年正式提出。職業(yè)心理學(xué)作為社會(huì)心理學(xué)的重要分支,其主要任務(wù)是幫助人們更好地識(shí)別和解決職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展中的種種問(wèn)題,而生涯建構(gòu)理論探討的,是個(gè)體如何通過(guò)一系列有意義的職業(yè)行為和工作經(jīng)歷來(lái)構(gòu)建自身職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展過(guò)程(Savickas,2005)。生涯建構(gòu)的哲學(xué)視角是個(gè)體建構(gòu)主義(personal constructivism)、社會(huì)建構(gòu)主義(social constructionism)和后現(xiàn)代主義(post-modernity)。在職業(yè)配型理論、職業(yè)成熟度理論的基礎(chǔ)上,生涯建構(gòu)理論進(jìn)一步提出,個(gè)體應(yīng)綜合考慮自己的過(guò)往經(jīng)驗(yàn)(past memory)、當(dāng)前感受(current experience)以及未來(lái)抱負(fù)(future aspiration)做出職業(yè)發(fā)展行為選擇,職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展就是個(gè)體圍繞職業(yè)生涯這一重要人生主題(life theme)而展開(kāi)的、內(nèi)涵豐富的主觀(guān)建構(gòu)過(guò)程(Savickas,1997,2005,2013a;Savickas & Profeli,2012)。

生涯建構(gòu)深化了既有職業(yè)發(fā)展理論,給經(jīng)典的職業(yè)人格理論和終身職業(yè)生涯理論賦予了后工業(yè)時(shí)代的內(nèi)涵,其衍生的生涯建構(gòu)咨詢(xún)(career construction counseling)也開(kāi)啟了一種新的生涯敘事研究模式(Savickas,2011); 圍繞適應(yīng)(adaptation)這一主題而建立的生涯建構(gòu)模型,為個(gè)體職業(yè)發(fā)展研究提供了新的熱點(diǎn)和思路(Savickas & Profeli,2012; Savickas,2013a)。目前,國(guó)內(nèi)有關(guān)生涯建構(gòu)理論及其應(yīng)用的文章還非常少,本文以“career construction”以及“career adaptability (Savickas &Profeli,2012之后)”為關(guān)鍵字在PsycARTICLES、PsycINFO及CSSCI電子數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中進(jìn)行檢索,收集到國(guó)內(nèi)外文獻(xiàn)50多篇,從理論內(nèi)涵、框架及國(guó)內(nèi)外應(yīng)用研究情況等方面對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)理論進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)梳理和評(píng)析,以期厘清其研究現(xiàn)狀和問(wèn)題,明確未來(lái)可能的研究方向。

2 生涯建構(gòu)理論的提出

傳統(tǒng)上,我們把職業(yè)生涯(career)從客觀(guān)角度定義為人們從專(zhuān)業(yè)化教育后期初涉職場(chǎng)直至完全退休之間的一個(gè)漫長(zhǎng)階段,匹配的職業(yè)或工作崗位是個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展的重要前提。過(guò)去有許多權(quán)威的職業(yè)測(cè)試工具,如基于榮格人格分類(lèi)心理學(xué)的 MBTI職業(yè)性格測(cè)試(Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)和基于霍蘭德職業(yè)興趣理論的SDS六角模型(Self-Directed Search)等,都曾被企業(yè)人力部門(mén)借用來(lái)選拔人才,職場(chǎng)人士則使用它們來(lái)進(jìn)行職業(yè)選擇和生涯發(fā)展管理的自我診斷。但如今,知識(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)給現(xiàn)代社會(huì)帶來(lái)不確定與快速變化的同時(shí),也使個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展發(fā)生了翻天覆地的變化(Cardoso,Silva,Gon?alves,& Duarte,2014),僅依靠這些工具是不足夠的。2011年,美國(guó)心理協(xié)會(huì)授予 Savickas咨詢(xún)心理學(xué)方面的李?yuàn)W泰勒獎(jiǎng)(Leona Tyler Award),頒獎(jiǎng)禮上他感慨回顧了自己從事職業(yè)指導(dǎo)實(shí)踐與研究40多年歷程,并形象地概括為三大主題(Savickas,2013b)：為演員進(jìn)行職業(yè)角色引導(dǎo)(Vocational Guidance for the Actor)、給當(dāng)事人開(kāi)展職業(yè)生涯教育(Career Education for the Agent)、對(duì)創(chuàng)作者提供職業(yè)生涯咨詢(xún)(Career Counseling for the Author)。細(xì)細(xì)琢磨三個(gè)生動(dòng)且高度概括的小標(biāo)題,每個(gè)都無(wú)不折射出職業(yè)心理學(xué)發(fā)展的飛躍,期間 Savickas憑借其豐富的實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)和深厚的學(xué)術(shù)功底,逐步完成了生涯建構(gòu)理論的提出和完善。

2.1 從職業(yè)配型到自我生涯建構(gòu)

傳統(tǒng)職業(yè)生涯模式的主導(dǎo)者是組織,對(duì)于個(gè)人而言,職業(yè)配型無(wú)疑是組織職業(yè)生涯管理時(shí)代的最佳策略。人們根據(jù)職業(yè)人格或職業(yè)興趣來(lái)選擇與自己最匹配的工作,但值得注意的是,職業(yè)配型理論有個(gè)前提假設(shè)：社會(huì)對(duì)職業(yè)的界定和分類(lèi)是清晰且確定不變的。然而,如今雇傭關(guān)系的不穩(wěn)定、組織邊界的模糊等,都使職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展變得越來(lái)越讓人看不透(Obi,2015),信息技術(shù)進(jìn)步讓人的主觀(guān)能動(dòng)性得以更大程度發(fā)揮,個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯可以不依賴(lài)組織或某單一組織而獲得推進(jìn)(Briscoe & Hall,2006),這些為生涯建構(gòu)理論提供了現(xiàn)實(shí)基礎(chǔ)。個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展不是做客觀(guān)選擇題,也不存在所謂現(xiàn)成的、固定的職業(yè)發(fā)展模板,Savickas并不否定Holland等人的職業(yè)特質(zhì)論,他不否認(rèn)人格、職業(yè)興趣的重要意義,但他進(jìn)一步指出個(gè)體職業(yè)行為和選擇還應(yīng)參考個(gè)體在價(jià)值觀(guān)、過(guò)往經(jīng)驗(yàn)、社會(huì)資本等主觀(guān)方面的因素(Savickas,2002,2005,2013a)。對(duì)于每個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō),生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程就猶如人們親身在演繹一個(gè)自己當(dāng)主角的、以職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展為線(xiàn)索的人生主題故事(personal career story of life theme),在這個(gè)故事中,內(nèi)心世界和外部環(huán)境之間不斷互動(dòng)-調(diào)整以追求達(dá)到某種相對(duì)適應(yīng)狀態(tài)。

2.2 從職業(yè)成熟度到生涯適應(yīng)力

職業(yè)成熟度(career maturity)概念是由Donald E. Super提出、后經(jīng)John O. Crites進(jìn)行補(bǔ)充完善的。Savickas早年曾分別接受過(guò)上述兩位職業(yè)大師的指導(dǎo),并與他們開(kāi)展過(guò)親密的合作研究。上世紀(jì)50至90年代,Super依次提出生涯發(fā)展理論(Career Development Theory)、生涯發(fā)展自我概念理論(Career Developmental Self-Concept Theory)和終身職業(yè)生涯理論(Life-Span Life-Space Career Theory),這些后來(lái)都成為了Savickas生涯建構(gòu)的理論基礎(chǔ)(Savickas,1997)。Super把個(gè)體職業(yè)生涯被劃分為若干發(fā)展階段,用職業(yè)成熟度來(lái)衡量個(gè)體在所處生涯階段的相應(yīng)發(fā)展水平,但“成熟”與否是通過(guò)與他人或社會(huì)客觀(guān)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行比較來(lái)決定的(Savickas,2005)。后來(lái),Super又提出生涯適應(yīng)力(career adaptability),認(rèn)為適應(yīng)(adaptation)才是終身職業(yè)生涯理論的核心(Super & Knasel,1981)。Savickas深受Super和Crites的影響,不僅把適應(yīng)力作為生涯建構(gòu)理論的核心要素,還指出個(gè)體職業(yè)發(fā)展的實(shí)質(zhì)就是一個(gè)追求主觀(guān)自我與外部世界相互適應(yīng)的動(dòng)態(tài)建構(gòu)過(guò)程,不同的人有著不同的具體建構(gòu)內(nèi)容和建構(gòu)結(jié)果(Savickas,1997,2002,2005,2013a)。

3 生涯建構(gòu)理論的主要觀(guān)點(diǎn)

Savickas (2002)曾針對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)理論提出過(guò)16個(gè)探索性命題(propositions),后來(lái)受McAdams一般人格結(jié)構(gòu)論(general framework of personality)啟發(fā),他融合并發(fā)展了個(gè)體-環(huán)境匹配(personenvironment fit)理論和職業(yè)人生主題(life theme for career)理論,把那些命題進(jìn)一步提煉成為生涯建構(gòu)理論的三個(gè)方面內(nèi)容(Savickas,2005)：不同個(gè)體間的特質(zhì)存在差異(differential); 個(gè)體在不同生涯階段所面臨的任務(wù)和應(yīng)對(duì)的策略具有承前啟后的發(fā)展性(developmental); 生涯發(fā)展是一個(gè)充滿(mǎn)內(nèi)動(dòng)力的變化過(guò)程(dynamic)。由此,生涯建構(gòu)理論分別用職業(yè)人格類(lèi)型(vocational personality types)、生涯適應(yīng)力(career adaptability)和人生主題(life theme)回應(yīng)了個(gè)體職業(yè)行為中“是什么(what)”、“怎么樣(how)”以及“為什么(why)”三個(gè)問(wèn)題的解釋(Savickas,2005,2013a)。

3.1 借助職業(yè)人格來(lái)形成對(duì)職業(yè)的自我概念(self-concept)

生涯建構(gòu)理論認(rèn)為,不管是個(gè)體-環(huán)境心理學(xué)(person-environment psychology)討論的個(gè)體職業(yè)特質(zhì)差別(individual difference in vocational traits),還是 Holland六角模型(RIASEC hexagon)所強(qiáng)調(diào)的職業(yè)興趣,都是生涯發(fā)展中不可忽視的重要方面,然而,僅有這些“表象(semblance)”或“名聲(reputation)”還不夠。生涯建構(gòu)是主觀(guān)的(subjective)、隱私的(private)和獨(dú)特的(idiographic)的逐步推進(jìn)過(guò)程(Savickas,2005,2013a),個(gè)體職業(yè)人格應(yīng)包含能力(abilities)、需要(needs)、價(jià)值觀(guān)(values)和興趣(interests)等,這些因素都是職業(yè)自我概念必須考慮的,也深深影響著人們生涯建構(gòu)的過(guò)程和結(jié)果。

3.2 用適應(yīng)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)發(fā)展

隨著職業(yè)流動(dòng)性(mobility)的增加和后工業(yè)時(shí)代的到來(lái),Super晚年時(shí)建議采用適應(yīng)力(adaptability)取代成熟度(maturity),用以聯(lián)結(jié)職業(yè)生涯5個(gè)發(fā)展階段。作為Super和Crites的忠實(shí)繼承者,Savichas仔細(xì)完成了生涯適應(yīng)的概念化、可操作化以及理論模型化等的一系列工作(Savickas,1997,2002,2005,2013a; Savickas &Profeli,2012)。他認(rèn)為,適應(yīng)聚焦的是個(gè)體生涯發(fā)展中的應(yīng)變過(guò)程(coping processes),即個(gè)體與環(huán)境之間如何在各種轉(zhuǎn)換中實(shí)現(xiàn)順利過(guò)渡和相互匹配(Savickas,2005,2013a),包括從學(xué)校到職場(chǎng)(from school to work)、從一份工作到另一份工作(from job to job)、從一種職業(yè)到另一種職業(yè)(from occupation to occupation)等角色或任務(wù)的轉(zhuǎn)換。

3.3 把職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展動(dòng)態(tài)視為人生主題

人生主題是生涯建構(gòu)的一個(gè)重要視角,以前我們希望找到合適的員工(fitting workers)來(lái)塑造職業(yè)成功和工作滿(mǎn)意,人生主題理論則讓我們通過(guò)建立關(guān)聯(lián)(mattering)來(lái)整合(integrate)主、客觀(guān)世界,號(hào)召個(gè)體通過(guò)具體工作體驗(yàn)來(lái)體現(xiàn)自身價(jià)值和能力(significant and validation) (Savickas,2002,2005,2013a)。

4 適應(yīng)：生涯建構(gòu)的核心與框架

4.1 生涯適應(yīng)力

生涯適應(yīng)力是指?jìng)€(gè)體在應(yīng)對(duì)各種工作任務(wù)及角色轉(zhuǎn)變中進(jìn)行自我調(diào)整的準(zhǔn)備狀態(tài)或社會(huì)心理資源(Savickas,1997),體現(xiàn)了個(gè)體在生涯發(fā)展過(guò)程中面對(duì)外部挑戰(zhàn)所具備的核心能力(Hou,Leung,Li,Li,& Xu,2012)。適應(yīng)力是生涯建構(gòu)理論的最關(guān)鍵要素,依照從抽象到具體可分三個(gè)層次來(lái)理解(見(jiàn)圖1,Savickas,2005)：首先是最抽象的層次,生涯適應(yīng)力是個(gè)四維二階構(gòu)念,由生涯關(guān)注(career concern)、生涯控制(career control)、生涯好奇(career curiosity)、生涯自信(career confident)構(gòu)成,分別對(duì)應(yīng)著“我有未來(lái)嗎？”、“誰(shuí)擁有我的未來(lái)？”、“未來(lái)我想要做什么？”和“我能做到嗎？”四個(gè)重要職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展問(wèn)題(趙小云,郭成,2010);中間層次是生涯適應(yīng)力的主要內(nèi)容,Savickas將其歸納為ABCs：態(tài)度(attitudes)、信念(beliefs)、能力(competencies); 底下是最具體的層次,是各種具體的個(gè)體職業(yè)行為(vocational behavior),尤其是面對(duì)外部職業(yè)環(huán)境變化所做出的自我調(diào)整行為(self-regulation strategies)。

圖1 生涯適應(yīng)力內(nèi)涵的三個(gè)層次

2008至2012年,Savickas聯(lián)合了多國(guó)學(xué)者對(duì)生涯適應(yīng)力的操作化定義進(jìn)行補(bǔ)充、完善,通過(guò)定量和定性?xún)煞N研究范式,共同推動(dòng)生涯適應(yīng)力的可操作化進(jìn)程(Savickas & Profeli,2012; McMahon,Watson,& Bimrose,2012)。其中,最顯著成果是13個(gè)國(guó)家和地區(qū)合作開(kāi)發(fā)的生涯適應(yīng)力量表(Career Adapt-Ability Scale,CAAS)。其后Savickas利用其《職業(yè)行為學(xué)報(bào)(Journal of Vocational Behavior)》主編身份的便利,不斷發(fā)起有關(guān)生涯適應(yīng)的專(zhuān)題研討,號(hào)召全球職業(yè)發(fā)展研究者對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)理論進(jìn)行跨文化檢驗(yàn)及推廣應(yīng)用。

4.2 自我建構(gòu)的生涯適應(yīng)模型

伴隨著 CAAS編制完成,一個(gè)圍繞“適應(yīng)”(adapt)而展開(kāi)的框架模型也隨之被揭示：個(gè)體要達(dá)到每一個(gè)生涯階段的穩(wěn)定適應(yīng)狀態(tài),都包含以下四方面：主觀(guān)上的適應(yīng)意愿或準(zhǔn)備狀態(tài)(willing/readiness: adaptivity),生涯適應(yīng)力——有助于進(jìn)行自我調(diào)整的社會(huì)心理資源(able/resource:adaptability),通過(guò)特定應(yīng)激反應(yīng)或職業(yè)行為選擇(response/behavior: adapting)發(fā)揮作用,最終實(shí)現(xiàn)個(gè)體與環(huán)境互動(dòng)整合的相對(duì)適應(yīng)結(jié)果(outcome/results: adaptation),分別代表著適應(yīng)的動(dòng)機(jī)、能力、態(tài)度或行為、結(jié)果。而且,上述過(guò)程的各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)都會(huì)受相應(yīng)情境因素的影響(Savickas &Profeli,2012; Savickas,2013a)。

其中,適應(yīng)動(dòng)機(jī)是適應(yīng)力產(chǎn)生的內(nèi)在動(dòng)力,既可表現(xiàn)為人格、價(jià)值觀(guān)等特質(zhì),也可以是具體的目標(biāo)取向、偏好、自我認(rèn)知等,適應(yīng)性(adaptive)動(dòng)機(jī)較強(qiáng)的個(gè)體往往擁有更開(kāi)放的心態(tài),他們能主動(dòng)地迎接及適應(yīng)外部環(huán)境的變化,如靈活調(diào)整目標(biāo)的人們就比篤定堅(jiān)守目標(biāo)的人們具有更顯著的適應(yīng)動(dòng)機(jī)(Tolentino,Garcia,Restubog,Bordia,&Tang,2013); 生涯適應(yīng)力被稱(chēng)為類(lèi)特質(zhì)(trait-like)心理資本構(gòu)念(趙小云,郭成,2010),短期內(nèi)具有

一定穩(wěn)定性,且受個(gè)體主觀(guān)方面和情境因素的制約; 這種自我調(diào)整能力能驅(qū)使人們產(chǎn)生特定的行為或行為傾向,如積極主動(dòng)的生涯規(guī)劃、職業(yè)探索(Urbanaviciute,Kairys,Pociute,& Liniauskaite,2014)或組織社會(huì)化行為(Taber & Blankemeyer,2015)等; 最后,生涯建構(gòu)的結(jié)果反映了個(gè)體在所處職業(yè)生涯階段中相對(duì)適應(yīng)的程度或狀態(tài),評(píng)價(jià)指標(biāo)是多種多樣的,比如大學(xué)畢業(yè)生找到一份滿(mǎn)意的工作(Guan et al.,2013,2014)、企業(yè)雇員對(duì)主管職業(yè)成功感受(Tolentino et al.,2013)或強(qiáng)度較低的工作壓力(Johnston et al.,2013)等等。這個(gè)模型(見(jiàn)圖 2)為職業(yè)行為研究提供了新的闡釋思路,同時(shí)也觸發(fā)了一系列驗(yàn)證生涯建構(gòu)理論的研究(Maggiori,Rossier,& Savickas,2015)。

5 生涯建構(gòu)模型的檢驗(yàn)與豐富

近兩年,對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)模型(Savickas & Profeli,2012; Savickas,2013a)進(jìn)行解釋和檢驗(yàn)的應(yīng)用研究不斷涌現(xiàn)。本文以適應(yīng)力為焦點(diǎn),分別從生涯適應(yīng)力的個(gè)體影響因素、情境因素及其可能引致的后效表現(xiàn)三方面對(duì)有關(guān)實(shí)證研究文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行了梳理。

5.1 影響生涯適應(yīng)力的個(gè)體因素

5.1.1 人格特征與生涯適應(yīng)

研究表明,某些人格特征與個(gè)體生涯適應(yīng)力水平密切相關(guān)。生涯建構(gòu)理論認(rèn)為,主觀(guān)上具備積極面對(duì)適應(yīng)的心理準(zhǔn)備或意愿,是個(gè)體獲取適應(yīng)性資源和結(jié)果的重要前因(Savickas & Profeli,2012)。主動(dòng)性人格代表了一種不受情境阻力約束、自發(fā)尋求突破的內(nèi)在動(dòng)力和行為傾向,因而成為個(gè)體生涯適應(yīng)力水平的最顯著預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)之一(李栩,侯志瑾,馮縵,2013; Hou,Wu,& Liu,2014;Tolentino et al.,2014a; Hirschi,Herrmann,& Keller,2015; Uy,Chan,Sam,Ho,& Chernyshenko,2015; Cai et al.,2015)。大五人格中各個(gè)維度與生涯適應(yīng)力的相關(guān)程度不盡相同：嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)盡責(zé)性(conscientiousness)、外向性(openness)與適應(yīng)力正相關(guān),而神經(jīng)質(zhì)人格(neuroticism)則與適應(yīng)力負(fù)相關(guān)(van Vianen,Klehe,Koen,& Dries,2012; Rossier,Zecca,Stauffer,Maggiori,& Dauwalder,2012; Teixeira,Bardagi,Lassance,Magalh?es,& Duarte,2012; Ohme &Zacher,2015)。

圖2 自我建構(gòu)的生涯適應(yīng)模型

5.1.2 社會(huì)認(rèn)知與生涯適應(yīng)

其次,有學(xué)者從價(jià)值觀(guān)和社會(huì)認(rèn)知角度來(lái)探討生涯適應(yīng)的影響因素。在成就動(dòng)機(jī)方面,追求自我卓越的目標(biāo)價(jià)值取向在個(gè)體積聚自我調(diào)整的社會(huì)心理資源過(guò)程中起到十分積極作用(Pouyaud,Vignoli,Dosnon,& Lallemand,2012; 蘇霞,董振華,2015)。一項(xiàng)菲律賓的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),大學(xué)生在目標(biāo)堅(jiān)持方面可能持有不同態(tài)度,有些人篤定地堅(jiān)守既定目標(biāo)(tenacious goal pursuit),另一些人則傾向與時(shí)俱進(jìn)地不斷修正目標(biāo)(flexible goal adjustment),盡管兩種態(tài)度都有利于生涯適應(yīng)力的形成,但統(tǒng)計(jì)檢驗(yàn)表明后者的預(yù)測(cè)作用顯著性更強(qiáng); 有趣的是,同樣問(wèn)題對(duì)于職場(chǎng)中的人們來(lái)說(shuō),結(jié)論也成立(Tolentino et al.,2013)。類(lèi)似研究還表明,以掌握知識(shí)為主要學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)的學(xué)生(Tolentino et al.,2014a)、追求內(nèi)心幸福和有意義生活的雇員(Johnston et al.,2013),會(huì)擁有更強(qiáng)的環(huán)境適應(yīng)能力。總之,適應(yīng)性高的個(gè)體,通常具備十分強(qiáng)大內(nèi)心(Ohme & Zacher,2015),他們當(dāng)中大多數(shù)是樂(lè)天派(Tolentino et al.,2014a; Perera & McIlveen,2014; Wilkins et al.,2014)、情商高(Coetzee & Harry,2014)、自尊心較強(qiáng)(van Vianen et al.,2012; Cai et al.,2015); 相反,患得患失或緊張焦慮等情緒則體現(xiàn)為某種不適應(yīng)性(maladaptive),將不利于生涯適應(yīng)力的形成(Pouyaud et al.,2012)。

此外,一些關(guān)注自我成長(zhǎng)和未來(lái)探索的職業(yè)態(tài)度感知,如易變與無(wú)邊界(protean and boundaryless)職業(yè)觀(guān)(Chan et al.,2015)、未來(lái)職業(yè)自我(future work self)認(rèn)知(Guan et al.,2014; Taber &Blankemeyer,2015)等都被發(fā)現(xiàn)與個(gè)體生涯適應(yīng)力積極相關(guān)。其中,Zacher (2014a,2014b)采用大樣本企業(yè)雇員追蹤的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),那些核心自我評(píng)價(jià)(Core self-evaluations)較高且關(guān)注自己過(guò)去和未來(lái)(Past/ Future temporal focus)的員工,適應(yīng)力水平相應(yīng)較高,證實(shí)了生涯建構(gòu)中個(gè)體職業(yè)進(jìn)步是通過(guò)對(duì)自身過(guò)往經(jīng)驗(yàn)、當(dāng)前感知以及積極未來(lái)規(guī)劃的整合來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)個(gè)體-環(huán)境協(xié)同的(Savickas &Profeli,2012; Savickas,2013a)。

5.1.3 個(gè)體職業(yè)因素與生涯適應(yīng)

有研究把生涯適應(yīng)力與其他職業(yè)因素進(jìn)行關(guān)聯(lián)分析,結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)：一般意義上的個(gè)體適應(yīng)力(Individual adaptability)、可雇傭能力(employability)都與生涯適應(yīng)力顯著正相關(guān)(De Guzman & Choi,2013; Hamtiaux,Houssemand,& Vrignaud,2013)。一些針對(duì)企業(yè)雇員的數(shù)據(jù)分析顯示,生涯適應(yīng)力、職業(yè)認(rèn)同度(career identity)是信息社會(huì)中個(gè)體生涯建構(gòu)的兩項(xiàng)重要元能力(meta-competencies),適應(yīng)力及其子維度與職業(yè)認(rèn)同中涉及職業(yè)承諾、職業(yè)探索方面的因子呈現(xiàn)中等程度積極相關(guān)(R在.29到.52之間) (Porfeli & Savickas,2012); 相反,適應(yīng)力與主觀(guān)感知的職業(yè)壁壘(career entrenchment)則呈反方向變化趨勢(shì)(Zacher,Ambiel,& Noronha,2015)?？梢?jiàn),生涯適應(yīng)力在個(gè)體職業(yè)發(fā)展和社會(huì)交互過(guò)程中,更多表現(xiàn)為一種“正能量”性質(zhì)的社會(huì)心理資本。

5.2 影響生涯適應(yīng)力的情境因素

目前,生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程中情境影響因素的探索相對(duì)較少,主要集中在社會(huì)支持(social support)及環(huán)境氛圍的感知方面(Creed,Fallon,& Hood,2009)。比如,來(lái)自學(xué)校和家庭等方面的支持感知對(duì)個(gè)體適應(yīng)性產(chǎn)生正強(qiáng)化效果(趙小云,2012; 李栩等,2013),良好學(xué)習(xí)氛圍對(duì)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)適應(yīng)有積極促進(jìn)作用(Guo et al.,2014; Tian & Fan,2014)。國(guó)內(nèi)一項(xiàng)針對(duì)本科生的調(diào)查,考察了父母親對(duì)待孩子職業(yè)發(fā)展方面的不同做法(如缺位、支持和干涉)及其可能后果,研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在推動(dòng)大學(xué)生職業(yè)探索、提升生涯適應(yīng)力方面,父母支持是一種積極因素,而干預(yù)則表現(xiàn)為負(fù)面因素,且當(dāng)家長(zhǎng)缺位水平較低時(shí),上述支持或干預(yù)行為的顯著效應(yīng)均會(huì)被進(jìn)一步放大(Guan et al.,2015)。客觀(guān)的情境因素對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)也有一些影響,比如商科學(xué)生中,適應(yīng)力強(qiáng)有助于他們萌生自主創(chuàng)業(yè)的想法,而家里經(jīng)商與否則表現(xiàn)為一個(gè)調(diào)解變量,即對(duì)做生意家庭的學(xué)生而言,上述積極效應(yīng)會(huì)更顯著(Tolentino,Sedoglavich,Lu,Garcia,& Restubog,2014b)。

另一些研究表明,社會(huì)支持有利于剛參加工作的年輕人獲得職業(yè)生涯適應(yīng)能力,并且能持續(xù)影響他們對(duì)工作的滿(mǎn)意度評(píng)價(jià)(Han & Rojewski,2015),而源自工作方面的壓力和不安全感,則為身處職場(chǎng)的人們帶來(lái)一定程度的負(fù)面影響,可能會(huì)干擾他們的生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程(Maggiori,Johnston,Krings,Massoudi,& Rossier,2013)。

5.3 自我建構(gòu)過(guò)程中的態(tài)度、行為和結(jié)果

在自我建構(gòu)的生涯適應(yīng)模型(見(jiàn)圖1)中,作為適應(yīng)后效輸出的,包括適應(yīng)性行為或傾向(adating)以及適應(yīng)結(jié)果(adaptation)兩方面內(nèi)容。已有研究證明,適應(yīng)能力強(qiáng)的個(gè)體,會(huì)更多地表現(xiàn)出主動(dòng)參與生涯規(guī)劃探索的積極行為(Urbanaviciute et al.,2014; Hirschi et al.,2015),他們努力爭(zhēng)取并非常珍惜每一次自我提升的機(jī)會(huì)(Taber & Blankemeyer,2015),在面對(duì)生涯發(fā)展挫折時(shí),他們不屈不撓、迎難而上(Perera & McIlveen,2014)。

適應(yīng)力是一種內(nèi)隱的社會(huì)心理資源(Savickas,1997),其作用突出體現(xiàn)在不同生涯階段的轉(zhuǎn)變或外部環(huán)境發(fā)生變化的背景下。比如,當(dāng)面臨生涯選擇或困境時(shí),生涯適應(yīng)力能幫助個(gè)體增強(qiáng)職業(yè)自我效能感,擺脫決策困境(李栩等,2013; Urbanaviciute et al.,2014; Hirschi et al.,2015; 蘇霞,董振華,2015),快速消化吸收由于工作壓力引起的不適(Johnston et al.,2013),或展現(xiàn)更佳的工作表現(xiàn)等(Guan et al.,2014; Ohme & Zacher,2015)。一些針對(duì)在校生樣本的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),高適應(yīng)力的孩子,在學(xué)業(yè)表現(xiàn)和心理健康兩方面的適應(yīng)水平都相比低適應(yīng)力的同伴做得更好(Guo et al.,2014; Perera &McIlveen,2014),對(duì)學(xué)校、同學(xué)及生活的總體滿(mǎn)意度評(píng)價(jià)也更積極(Wilkins et al.,2014); 在大家關(guān)心的就業(yè)問(wèn)題上,適應(yīng)力可以幫助大學(xué)生及時(shí)調(diào)整求職心態(tài)、獲得滿(mǎn)意的求職結(jié)果,甚至可以預(yù)示未來(lái)工作崗位上高水平的人職匹配感知(Guan et al.,2013,2014),成功實(shí)現(xiàn)人生道路上一次重要的自我生涯建構(gòu)。

另外一些針對(duì)職場(chǎng)人士的研究顯示,生涯適應(yīng)力與工作投入顯著正相關(guān)(Rossier et al.,2012),適應(yīng)力高的雇員,其工作滿(mǎn)意度和職業(yè)幸福感也相對(duì)較高(Maggiori et al.,2013; Han & Rojewski,2015),這些主觀(guān)職業(yè)成功感受又會(huì)進(jìn)一步促進(jìn)他們?cè)诳陀^(guān)方面的結(jié)果,如生活質(zhì)量提高和職業(yè)晉升等(Soresi,Nota,& Ferrari,2012; Tolentino et al.,2013)。

6 生涯建構(gòu)的研究展望

6.1 探索職場(chǎng)中后期的生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程

生涯建構(gòu)的外延包括個(gè)體從職業(yè)準(zhǔn)備到完全退出職場(chǎng)的職業(yè)發(fā)展全過(guò)程,這個(gè)過(guò)程既包含不同生涯階段的轉(zhuǎn)換適應(yīng),又包含某一生涯階段或某一具體職業(yè)過(guò)程中的五階段微循環(huán)(minicycle:Savickas,2005)。但就目前情況來(lái)看,相當(dāng)部分生涯建構(gòu)研究?jī)H針對(duì)青少年或大學(xué)生的職業(yè)探索初期,即教育階段的跨越(如從中學(xué)畢業(yè)跨越到高等教育專(zhuān)業(yè)選擇)和從教育階段到進(jìn)入職場(chǎng)早期的過(guò)渡(如大學(xué)生擇業(yè)求職); 其次也有少數(shù)基于企業(yè)雇員的職場(chǎng)中期(mid-career)研究(Brown,Bimrose,Barnes,& Hughes,2012); 關(guān)于職場(chǎng)后期或退休返聘的個(gè)體生涯建構(gòu)探討同樣不多,Zacher和Griffin (2015)一項(xiàng)聚焦企業(yè)老齡員工樣本(Mage= 59.6,SD= 2.4)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),生涯適應(yīng)力與員工工作滿(mǎn)意正相關(guān),這種積極關(guān)系會(huì)受到個(gè)體繼續(xù)工作動(dòng)機(jī)的調(diào)節(jié),即對(duì)于那些愿意繼續(xù)工作的老員工,適應(yīng)能力強(qiáng)讓他們對(duì)工作感覺(jué)越滿(mǎn)意。但顯然,有關(guān)問(wèn)題的探索還遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠,中國(guó)乃至世界的老齡化問(wèn)題正在讓職業(yè)中后期的生涯發(fā)展越發(fā)值得關(guān)注。

社會(huì)中有不同階層、群體,某些特殊職業(yè)人群的生涯建構(gòu)過(guò)程同樣值得關(guān)注,比如國(guó)外有學(xué)者分析了輕度殘障勞動(dòng)者(mild intellectual disability)的生涯適應(yīng)問(wèn)題,發(fā)現(xiàn)意志力(willpower)和途徑(waypower)兩個(gè)精神層的“希望(hope)”部分中介了他們?cè)谶m應(yīng)力與生活滿(mǎn)意度之間的關(guān)系(Santilli,Nota,Ginevra,& Soresi,2014)。我們的社會(huì)中有許許多多不同的職業(yè)類(lèi)型,還有面臨著各種各樣生涯發(fā)展挑戰(zhàn)問(wèn)題的職業(yè)人群,設(shè)定了具體職業(yè)發(fā)展情境或職業(yè)人群的生涯適應(yīng)研究顯然更體現(xiàn)實(shí)證主義的精髓,也將有助于深化生涯建構(gòu)理論在不同領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用和檢驗(yàn)。

6.2 繼續(xù)挖掘情境因素對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)的影響

在綜述現(xiàn)有研究時(shí)我們發(fā)現(xiàn),對(duì)生涯建構(gòu)中情境因素的探討是不充分的。除個(gè)體所處社會(huì)環(huán)境條件外,工作或職業(yè)等屬性對(duì)個(gè)體適應(yīng)過(guò)程的作用也是不容忽視的(Savickas,2005,2013a;Maggiori et al.,2013)。此外,團(tuán)隊(duì)或組織層面的因素同樣十分值得關(guān)注的,比如氛圍、人力資源政策或?qū)嵺`等(于海波,鄭曉明,2013; Guan et al.,2014; Tian & Fan,2014)。當(dāng)然,這可能涉及更為復(fù)雜的多水平模型分析方法,以及面對(duì)更高研究樣本要求等的問(wèn)題。

6.3 豐富生涯建構(gòu)的質(zhì)性研究

生涯建構(gòu)在職業(yè)輔導(dǎo)領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用研究通常要用到質(zhì)性方法。Savickas根據(jù)自己幾十年的職業(yè)指導(dǎo)經(jīng)驗(yàn),編寫(xiě)了一套完整的生涯建構(gòu)咨詢(xún)(career construction counseling)操作指南(Savickas,2005,2011),主張利用訪(fǎng)談或?qū)υ?huà)的敘事心理學(xué)(narrative psychology)范式來(lái)幫助當(dāng)事人把自己的故事加以整理,然后通過(guò)特定工具、步驟逐步厘清職業(yè)生涯發(fā)展的方向和任務(wù)。國(guó)外職業(yè)咨詢(xún)事業(yè)十分成熟,采用生涯建構(gòu)咨詢(xún)方法的研究已經(jīng)開(kāi)始出現(xiàn)(Cardoso et al.,2014; Maree,2015)。質(zhì)性研究還有一個(gè)重要作用,就是彌補(bǔ)量化分析的不足,自我敘事(self-narrative)的個(gè)案研究可以幫助研究者梳理職業(yè)發(fā)展中主要矛盾,識(shí)別關(guān)鍵變量,以及深化我們對(duì)不同文化背景下生涯發(fā)展現(xiàn)象和問(wèn)題的理解(Brown et al.,2012; McMahon et al.,2012; 趙小云,薛桂英,2012)。

6.4 聚焦個(gè)案與群體性的生涯適應(yīng)干預(yù)問(wèn)題

終身職業(yè)生涯的自我建構(gòu)過(guò)程具有情境性(contextual possibilities)、動(dòng)態(tài)性(dynamic processes)、非線(xiàn)性(non-linear progression)、多角度(multiple perspectives)和個(gè)性化(personal patterns)的特征,這也是職業(yè)生涯干預(yù)的 5個(gè)重要前提(five presuppositions: Savickas et al.,2009)。Savickas認(rèn)為,生涯適應(yīng)力是可以加以干預(yù)的,比如通過(guò)前面提及的自我敘事來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)(Savickas,2002,2005,2011),幫助當(dāng)事人認(rèn)識(shí)自己、克服困擾、激發(fā)潛能;其次,是借助現(xiàn)場(chǎng)準(zhǔn)試驗(yàn)(field quasi-experiment)對(duì)生涯適應(yīng)力干預(yù)進(jìn)行定量分析(Koen,Klehe,&van Vianen,2012; Janeiro,Mota,& Ribas,2014;Obi,2015)。但國(guó)內(nèi)這方面的研究幾乎為零,其實(shí),在我們的職業(yè)教育和職業(yè)發(fā)展管理工作中,干預(yù)研究是非常有價(jià)值的,比如高校職業(yè)指導(dǎo)課程、企業(yè)職業(yè)技能培訓(xùn)項(xiàng)目、政府再就業(yè)政策措施等都是目的性非常強(qiáng)生涯適應(yīng)干預(yù)行為,干預(yù)效果分析則可為后續(xù)實(shí)踐提供有益的參考依據(jù)。

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