董路娜,孫英杰,鄭 航,胡桂學(xué),丁 鏟
(1.吉林農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)動物科學(xué)技術(shù)學(xué)院,長春 130118;2.中國農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)院上海獸醫(yī)研究所,上海 200241)
應(yīng)激顆粒和抗病毒先天性免疫
董路娜1,孫英杰2,鄭 航1,胡桂學(xué)1,丁 鏟2
(1.吉林農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)動物科學(xué)技術(shù)學(xué)院,長春 130118;2.中國農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)院上海獸醫(yī)研究所,上海 200241)
病毒感染哺乳動物細(xì)胞過程中,病毒復(fù)制產(chǎn)生的基因組或病毒蛋白激活先天性免疫信號通路后,產(chǎn)生干擾素的同時誘導(dǎo)干擾素下游基因表達(dá),促進(jìn)細(xì)胞的抗病毒反應(yīng)。與此同時,病毒感染宿主細(xì)胞還能引起胞質(zhì)顆粒的聚集,其成份大多為核糖核蛋白,RNA結(jié)合蛋白、翻譯起始因子等,這個聚集區(qū)域被稱之為應(yīng)激顆粒(stress granules,SG)。先天性免疫通路和SG都是宿主細(xì)胞對病毒感染的一種抵抗性反應(yīng),而與之相對,一些病毒卻通過抑制SG和先天性免疫通路的形成來促進(jìn)自身復(fù)制。由于SG中包含RNA結(jié)合蛋白以及一系列病毒或宿主的RNA,而先天性免疫中識別病毒RNA的模式識別分子也能特異性結(jié)合病毒RNA,那SG如何協(xié)同先天性免疫在宿主抗病毒中發(fā)揮一定的作用,本文就SG在病毒感染誘導(dǎo)的先天性免疫中的作用進(jìn)行簡要綜述。
應(yīng)激顆粒;病毒;先天性免疫;RNA結(jié)合蛋白
病毒感染宿主細(xì)胞能夠激活宿主的一系列抗病毒反應(yīng),除了獲得性免疫之外,通過模式識別受體(pattern recognition receptro,PRRs)識別病毒從而誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生干擾素是一種重要的先天性抗病毒機制,除此之外,近年來發(fā)現(xiàn)的應(yīng)激顆粒(stress granule,SG)也被越來越多的證明和病毒的復(fù)制有著重要的關(guān)系,鑒于SG成分及形成機制的特殊性,不難推測其在病毒誘導(dǎo)的先天性免疫中發(fā)揮重要的作用。本文著重對病毒感染過程中SG和先天性免疫間關(guān)系的最新進(jìn)展進(jìn)行綜述,可以為深入了解病毒與宿主細(xì)胞互作以及控制病毒的感染提供一個新的思路。
1.1 應(yīng)激顆粒 細(xì)胞在受到各種不同程度的損害如熱休克、氧化應(yīng)激、營養(yǎng)饑餓等刺激時,為抵抗這些不良刺激,在胞質(zhì)中形成核蛋白聚集成的非核膜包裹的聚集區(qū)域,稱為SG。一般認(rèn)為SG是細(xì)胞停滯翻譯的現(xiàn)象,作為防止異常蛋白合成的一種手段。停滯翻譯的核蛋白在外界壓力消失的情況下恢復(fù)轉(zhuǎn)錄和翻譯,或者被P小體(processing bodies,PB)分解[1,2]。
多種RNA結(jié)合蛋白(RNA binding proteins,RBPs)存在于SG中,其中一些經(jīng)典的蛋白可以用作SG的標(biāo)記蛋白,通過熒光可檢測到。有些蛋白是SG形成和維持其穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)的關(guān)鍵因素,如Ras-GAP SH3結(jié)合蛋白1(RasGTPase-activating proteinbinding protein 1,G3BP1)是磷酸化依賴性核酸內(nèi)切酶,T細(xì)胞限制性胞內(nèi)抗原1(T cell restricted intracellularantigen-1,TIA1)和TIA相關(guān)蛋白(TIA-related protein,TIAR)合稱TIA/TIAR。通過對這些調(diào)節(jié)因子基因的敲除或者RNA干擾可起到一定的抑制SG形成的作用[3,4]。然而,SG形成的具體分子生物學(xué)機制還不清楚。
細(xì)胞受到應(yīng)激之后eIF-2α第51位絲氨酸磷酸化是導(dǎo)致SG形成的主要原因。4種eIF-2α激酶:雙鏈RNA依賴性激酶(protein kinase R,PKR)、總蛋白調(diào)節(jié)激酶(general control non-derepressible kinase,GCN2)、PKR樣內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)激酶(PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase,PERK)、亞鐵血紅素eIF-2α激酶(heme-regulated eIF-2α kinase,HRI)可以使哺乳動物eIF-2α磷酸化。eIF-2α磷酸化導(dǎo)致eIF2-GTP-tRNAMet三聚體量的減少,而eIF2-GTP-tRNAMet對于將tRNA裝配至48S前體復(fù)合物的過程至關(guān)重要,eIF2-GTP-tRNAMet的不足導(dǎo)致RNA結(jié)合蛋白TIA-1和TIAR等代替三聚體結(jié)合48S復(fù)合物,促進(jìn)了多核糖體的解聚和SG的形成[2]。
1.2 病毒感染和應(yīng)激顆粒 病毒尤其是RNA病毒可以引起胞質(zhì)中SG樣小體形成,部分病毒通過激活eIF2α激酶PKR和GCN2誘導(dǎo)SG形成,當(dāng)細(xì)胞檢測到細(xì)胞質(zhì)中的病毒RNA時,這兩種因子被激活并發(fā)揮一定作用。病毒感染宿主細(xì)胞誘導(dǎo)SG形成的模式有多種:形成穩(wěn)定SG、不形成SG或是SG形成后很快被分解等(表1)。
1.2.1 病毒感染誘導(dǎo)暫態(tài)SG形成 在小RNA病毒感染宿主細(xì)胞過程中,如脊髓灰質(zhì)炎病毒、柯薩奇病毒和腦心肌炎病毒,SG形成時間短暫與病毒3C蛋白酶水解G3BP1有關(guān)[6,7]。另外,丙型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis C virus,HCV)感染能夠形成SG,但在感染后期分解。HCV通過其基因組中5'端未翻譯區(qū)域激活PKR從而誘導(dǎo)SG形成,但壓力應(yīng)激誘導(dǎo)DNA損傷誘導(dǎo)基因34(growth arrest and DNA damage -inducible transcript 34,GADD34)的表達(dá)在感染后期介導(dǎo)eIF2α去磷酸化從而抑制SG形成。當(dāng)恢復(fù)壓力應(yīng)激時,一種未知機制促使GADD34表達(dá)下調(diào),細(xì)胞中eIF2α被磷酸化,這樣的環(huán)境變化導(dǎo)致SG反復(fù)形成與分解[13,14]。
1.2.2 病毒感染誘導(dǎo)穩(wěn)態(tài)SG形成 腺病毒5型感染宿主細(xì)胞能夠誘導(dǎo)穩(wěn)定SG形成,有趣的是,缺失E1A蛋白的腺病毒5型感染細(xì)胞后。誘導(dǎo)了數(shù)輪SG的形成,其具體機制還有待進(jìn)一步證實[7]。呼吸道合胞體病毒感染全程均能檢測到SG的表達(dá),且隨著感染時間的延長SG數(shù)量增多,將SG形成關(guān)鍵基因G3BP1敲除之后病毒復(fù)制能力有一定程度降低[21]
2.3 病毒感染抑制SG形成 門戈病毒和鼠科動物腦脊髓炎病毒都是心肌病毒屬的核酸病毒成員,由于病毒非結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白L蛋白抑制SG形成,因此這些病毒感染細(xì)胞時不形成SG。L蛋白是通過抑制IRF-3活化來阻止干擾素(interferon,IFN)的產(chǎn)生,但L蛋白抑制SG形成的機制尚不清楚[8]。同樣麻疹病毒感染細(xì)胞后,細(xì)胞中也不產(chǎn)生SG,病毒C蛋白在其中發(fā)揮一定的作用,與野生型毒株相比,C蛋白缺失的病毒能明顯的誘導(dǎo)SG產(chǎn)生。盡管麻疹病毒C蛋白在感染過程中起多種作用,如調(diào)節(jié)病毒聚合酶活性、抑制IFN產(chǎn)生,但抑制SG形成的分子機制還有待進(jìn)一步研究[20]。甲型流感病毒感染過程中,病毒非結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白1(nonstructural protein 1,NS1)通過RNA隔離或其他理化作用阻斷PKR激活通路從而抑制eIF2α磷酸化[25]這些研究結(jié)果證實SG有一定的抗病毒作用,相應(yīng)的,病毒也在一定程度上抑制SG的形成。
表 1 病毒感染與SG形成Table 1 Viral infection and SG formation
2.1 RLRs通路在SG形成中的作用 對流感病毒的研究結(jié)果顯示,NS1缺失流感病毒能夠誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生穩(wěn)定SG,在SG中能夠檢測到RIG-I、黑素瘤差異化相關(guān)基因5(melanoma differentiation-associated protein5,MDA5)、遺傳學(xué)和生理實驗室蛋白2(laboratory of genetics and Physiology 2,LGP2)等抗病毒蛋白,同時還能檢測到病毒RNA,根據(jù)敲除和RNA干擾實驗證實SG的抗病毒作用,并將其命名為抗病毒SG(antiviral SG,avSG),說明SG能夠作為宿主細(xì)胞的抗病毒平臺識別非自身RNA進(jìn)而發(fā)揮其抗病毒作用[25]。與此矛盾的是,L蛋白失活的門戈病毒感染宿主細(xì)胞也能產(chǎn)生SG,SG中能夠檢測到識別小RNA病毒科病毒的受體MDA5,但是進(jìn)一步實驗結(jié)果顯示,MDA5介導(dǎo)的干擾素通路既不誘導(dǎo)SG也并非SG形成所必需[36]。最新的研究結(jié)果顯示,以雙鏈RNA模擬病毒核酸刺激細(xì)胞為模型,將RIG-I、MDA5和MAVS分別RNA干擾,發(fā)現(xiàn)只有MAVS的敲低影響了細(xì)胞內(nèi)SG的形成,而RIG-I和MDA5的敲低對SG形成并無影響,進(jìn)一步研究顯示MAVS通過其CARD區(qū)域與PKR直接相互作用,促使PKR的二聚化激活,從而通過PKR-eIF2α通路誘導(dǎo)SG形成[37]。RIG-I是一種DExD/H box類RNA解旋酶,DHX36作為另一種DExD/H box類RNA解旋酶通過調(diào)控雙鏈RNA(dsRNA)依賴的PKR的激活參與RIG-I信號通路的激活,同時也能調(diào)控PKR依賴的抗病毒SG(avSG)的形成,協(xié)助病毒RNA的特異性識別[38]。
2.2 SG在病毒誘導(dǎo)的先天性免疫中的作用 在腸道病毒感染細(xì)胞過程中,SG形成關(guān)鍵基因G3BP1的PxxP結(jié)構(gòu)域?qū)G的形成,細(xì)胞招募PKR至SG中的過程以及PKR介導(dǎo)的eIF2α必需,說明G3BP1能夠在轉(zhuǎn)錄和翻譯水平調(diào)控宿主先天性免疫,在細(xì)胞應(yīng)激反應(yīng)與先天性免疫之間起到了橋梁作用[39]。在流感病毒感染中,通過將SG形成關(guān)鍵基因G3BP1或PKR的RNA干擾導(dǎo)致IFN產(chǎn)量的下降和病毒滴度的上升,說明G3BP1和PKR參與了流感病毒誘導(dǎo)的先天性免疫過程[25]。由于PKR-eIF2α通路是病毒誘導(dǎo)宿主細(xì)胞SG產(chǎn)生的經(jīng)典途徑,同時PKR還是重要的干擾素刺激因子,有報道顯示PKR還參與了IFN的產(chǎn)生[40]。鑒于PKR分子的這種特殊性,其在SG與抗病毒先天性免疫的聯(lián)系中可能起到了至關(guān)重要的作用(圖1)。
圖1 應(yīng)激顆粒與先天性免疫互作模式圖Fig. 1 The model of the interaction between SGs and innate immunity
2.3 SG與ISGs介導(dǎo)的mRNA調(diào)控 已有報道顯示細(xì)胞在受到應(yīng)激反應(yīng)時,多種ISGs被招募到SG中,其中包括聚(ADP-核糖)聚合酶(PARP)蛋白、型莫洛尼白血病病毒10同源蛋白(MOV10)、RNA腺苷脫氨酶ADAR1(ADAR1)等,這些蛋白均參與了miRNA介導(dǎo)的靶基因沉默。
2.3.1 PARPs 許多聚(ADP-核糖)聚合酶家族蛋白均是ISGs,其中被鑒定出來最著名的抗病毒蛋白是PARP13,或稱之為鋅指抗病毒蛋白(zinc-finger antiviral protein,ZAP),由IRF-3介導(dǎo)的I型IFN刺激分泌[41],ZAP有兩個剪輯突變體ZAPL(PARP13.1)和ZAPS(PARP13.2)[42]在所有PARP成員中,PARP12和ZAP的兩個剪輯突變體ZAPL和ZAPS均被證實位于SG中[43]其中在亞砷酸鈉誘導(dǎo)的氧化應(yīng)激中,PARP12與經(jīng)典的SG標(biāo)記物G3BP1、TIAR以及轉(zhuǎn)錄起始因子3η共定位,有一些證據(jù)證明,PARP12可能是一種SG特異性PARPs發(fā)揮對ZAP和Ago2(另一種PARP)的ADP-核糖基化作用。由于許多ISGs發(fā)揮抗增殖的作用,因此其在細(xì)胞中的本底表達(dá)量很低且受到嚴(yán)格調(diào)控,據(jù)猜測與其他基因相比,更多數(shù)量的微RNA(microRNA,miRNA)在正常生理狀態(tài)下結(jié)合在ISGs的3'UTR發(fā)揮阻遏作用[44],而病毒感染狀態(tài)下ISG的mRNA去阻遏從而上調(diào)表達(dá)抑制病毒復(fù)制。ADP核糖在去除RNA誘導(dǎo)沉默復(fù)合物(RNA-induced silencing complex,RISC)活性上調(diào)ISGs表達(dá)過程中發(fā)揮重要的作用,ZAPS、ZAPL和PARP12則作為重要的組分參與了應(yīng)激狀態(tài)下RISC活性的釋放,但其中的具體機制還不清楚。
2.3.2 MOV10 MOV10蛋白是RNA解旋酶超家族1的成員,在C端有保守的解旋酶基序[45]。MOV10作為一種I型IFN刺激因子,能夠抑制HCV和逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒的復(fù)制,但是卻能夠協(xié)助丁型肝炎病毒的轉(zhuǎn)錄[46,47]。MOV10能夠在純化的Ago1和Ago2復(fù)合物中鑒定到,位于PB中,功能上參與了miRNA介導(dǎo)的mRNA沉默[48]。MOV10能通過完美匹配miRNA介導(dǎo)mRNA的切割、通過不完美匹配miRNA介導(dǎo)蛋白翻譯的抑制。與此對應(yīng)的是,APOBEC3G作為另一種ISG同樣也位于PB中,通過干擾MOV10和Ago2的互作抑制miRNA功能,導(dǎo)致RISC復(fù)合物的異常組裝和成熟[49]。概括的說,MOV10與Ago2的互作對于RISC的功能至關(guān)重要,但是MOV10對miRNA不同的抑制機制仍然有不同的結(jié)論,需要進(jìn)一步證實。
2.3.3 ADAR1 ADAR家族成員能識別特定RNA底物分子中的腺苷(A)并催化其水解脫氨為肌苷(I),A到I的RNA編輯導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞將I作為鳥苷(G)來識別,從而導(dǎo)致遺傳密碼子的改變。其中ADAR1被認(rèn)為參與病毒基因組的編輯過程,導(dǎo)致了病毒基因組的多樣性,也發(fā)揮抑制病毒復(fù)制的作用[50]。ADAR1分為p110和p150兩個亞型,其中p150亞型存在于氧化應(yīng)激和干擾素誘導(dǎo)的SG中,p 1 5 0的這種定位依賴于其特有的Z-D N A結(jié)合結(jié)構(gòu)域[51]。ADAR1通過直接與RNAi通路成員互作或者miRNA的A到I剪輯發(fā)揮促進(jìn)或者抑制miRNA功能,不同的報道之間有一定的沖突,還沒有定論。在麻疹病毒(Measles virus,MV)的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),MV感染后PKR和ADAR1與SG標(biāo)志物G3BP1共定位,將ADAR1敲除后MV誘導(dǎo)SG增加,將ADAR1的p150亞型進(jìn)行互補表達(dá)能夠恢復(fù)對SG的抑制,說明ADAR1能夠負(fù)調(diào)控MV誘導(dǎo)的SG[20]。
2.4 SG與其他細(xì)胞抗病毒成分 除了以上經(jīng)典的先天性免疫分子之外,還有其他一些抗病毒因子被證明與病毒誘導(dǎo)的SG密切相關(guān)。例如ATP依賴的RNA解旋酶DDX3X,參與了包括先天性免疫在內(nèi)的許多細(xì)胞功能中,在HCV感染過程中發(fā)揮正向調(diào)控作用,HCV的3'UTR能夠與DDX3X和IKK-α互作并共定位至SG中。在HCV感染的細(xì)胞中,多數(shù)HCV非結(jié)構(gòu)蛋白在SGs和脂滴(lipid droplet,LD)附近與DDX3X共定位,通過將DDX3X和SG關(guān)鍵組分敲低能顯著抑制HCV復(fù)制,說明DDX3X通過與HCV蛋白和RNA互作、SG和LD表面的動態(tài)互作在HCV感染過程中發(fā)揮作用[52]。在粘液瘤病毒和牛痘病毒感染過程中,M062蛋白能夠通過直接互作抑制抗病毒蛋白SAMD9功能,而缺失M062蛋白的粘液瘤病毒能夠誘導(dǎo)抗病毒顆粒的形成,與經(jīng)典的SG成分有所不同,其形成不依賴于eIF2α而依賴于SAMD9,因此被命名為SAMD9樣顆粒[53]。
SG作為一種細(xì)胞針對應(yīng)激的一種反應(yīng)對生物維持自穩(wěn)態(tài)至關(guān)重要,SG形成與IFN的產(chǎn)生量有密切的相互關(guān)系,許多RLRs和其他抗病毒蛋白以及病毒RNA或蛋白都聚集于SG中,這些證據(jù)表明SG很有可能作為一種先天性免疫的“平臺”發(fā)揮作用,廣義上說,是否SG與細(xì)胞自噬類似,本身就是動物進(jìn)化過程中形成的先天性抗病毒機制?是宿主發(fā)揮抗病毒反應(yīng)中重要的一個環(huán)節(jié)?了解SG和先天性免疫如如何協(xié)同抵抗病毒感染對于開發(fā)新型抗病毒策略和預(yù)防病毒感染有重要的理論意義。
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STRESS GRANULE AND ANTIVIRAL INNATE IMMUNITY
DONG Lu-na1, SUN Ying-jie2, ZHENG Hang1, HU Gui-xue1, DING Chan2
(1. College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China; 2.Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Shanghai 200241, China)
In the course of virus infection, virus genome and protein produced by virus replication initiate innate immunity signaling pathway, leading to interferon secretion and interferon stimulate gene expression and ultimately establish an antiviral state. Meanwhile,virus infection also induced stress granule (SG) containing ribonucleoprotein, RNA binding protein and eukaryotic initiated factors, etc. Innate immunity and SG are both cellular antiviral response. Correspondingly, virus promotes its own replication through inhibit SG formation and innate immunity. SG contains RNA binding protein and a series of virus or host RNA, while the molecular associated to innate immunity such as pattern recognition receptor also specifically recognize virus RNA, indicating their close relationship. This review will focus on the strategies how SG and innate immunity collaboratively exert antiviral function.
Stress granule; virus; innate immunity; RNA binding protein
S 852.42
A
1674-6422(2015)04-0065-07
2015-05-04
國家自然科學(xué)基金青年基金(31400144);上海市青年科技英才楊帆計劃(14YF1408000); 中國博士后科學(xué)基金面上一等資助(2014M550107)
董路娜,女,碩士研究生,預(yù)防獸醫(yī)學(xué)專業(yè)
丁鏟,E-mail: shoveldeen@shvri.ac.cn;胡桂學(xué),E -mail : huguixue901103@163.com