The Oxford English Dictionary—the “OED” to its friends—has announced a 2016 update, consisting of over 1,000 new words and word meanings, along with the revision or expansion of over 2,000 entries1).
The revisions are not just new words or phrases, like “glamping,” “air-punching,” “sweary” and “budgie smugglers.” The OED has also revised its entry of “bittem,” an obsolete2) word over 1000 years old, meaning “the keel or lower part of a ships hull.”
Where did the new words come from? Some are borrowed from other languages, such as “narcocorrido” (a Spanish word for a traditional Mexican ballad recounting the exploits of drug traffickers), “potjie” (from Afrikaans, a three-legged cast iron cooking pot for use over a fire), and “shishito” (from Japanese, a particular kind of chili used in Asian cooking).
Some additions are deeply revealing of our modern preoccupations—such as the terms “assisted death.” This category also includes the word “agender” (without gender), born of a communal reaction to our deeply binary thinking around gender. The OED dates its use first to the year 2000.
The OED has also added new “initialisms.” To its existing list, which included IMF (International Monetary Fund) and IDB (illicit3) diamond buyer), it has added ICYMI (in case you missed it), IRL (in real life), IDK (I dont know), and FFS (look that one up if you dont know it already?。?/p>
Many of the new entries are made by combining words. Some of these fit the definition of “compound words,” that is, words formed by joining two together, such as “air-punching,” “bare-knuckle” and “self-identity.” Others are just two words put side-by-side, such as “power couple,” “hockey mum4),” “test drive” and “star sign.”
Clearly some of these terms—“budgie smugglers” for instance—have been around for some time. The OED dates this term to 1998. The source is The Games, the Australian mockumentary5) television series about the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney.
The expression “battle of the sexes,” meanwhile, has only just made it into the dictionary. The OED first attests its use right back to 1723.
Then there are the new forms from old stock. For instance, to the verb “exploit,” the OED is adding an adjective (“exploitational”), an adverb (“exploitatively”), and a noun to denote someone who is exploiting someone or something (“exploiter”).
To the verb “to swear” the OED now includes “sweary,” both as noun (a swear word can be called “a sweary”) and adjective (meaning something or someone characterized by a lot of swearing).
Why the Wait?
So how do words get into the dictionary? “Lexicographers”—the folk who make dictionaries—add words only when there is evidence of usage over some period of time, and across various contexts of usage.
A dictionary can never hold every word of a language. The only estimate I know suggests that well over half the words of English are not recorded by dictionaries. Since this research is based on the Google Books corpus, the data is only from published books in university libraries. We can safely say this figure is very conservative.
Somewhere around 400 million people speak English as a native language. But linguist David Crystal estimates three times as many speak English as an additional language. Thanks to colonization, English is the primary language for countries as diverse as Barbados, Singapore, and Belize.
This latest OED update includes the publication of written and spoken pronunciations for additional English varieties6), including those versions spoken in Australia, Canada, the Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the Philippines, Scotland, Singapore, Malaysia and South Africa. While some of these varieties already had coverage, their presentation has been expanded.
In Praise of Singlish
The addition of Singapore English is new. Speakers of Singapore English (or “Singlish”)—I count myself as a reasonable speaker of this dialect7)—will be delighted to see the inclusion of words such as “ang moh” (a light-skinned person of Western origin), “killer litter” (objects thrown or falling from high-rise buildings, endangering the people below) and “shiok” (an expression of admiration).
If you think English belongs to Anglos8), then you can start by banishing the word “yum cha” from your vocabulary. For a good laugh at Australian English, and the Indian variety, try the series “How to speak Australians,” from the “Dehli Institute of Linguistics.”
By adding the “World Englishes” to the entries on British and American English, the OED has opened a Pandoras box. For instance, read the OEDs explanation for choosing “White South African English” as the model to represent their entries on South African English.
Changes to the OED remind us that a language is not a fixed entity. Not only is English constantly changing, but its boundaries are fluid.
Languages are open and dynamic: open to other dialects and their many and varied users. Therein lies both the power and beauty of language.
《牛津英語詞典》——熟悉的人稱之為“OED”——推出了2016年的更新,其中收錄了一千多個新詞和詞義,修訂并擴充了兩千多個詞條。
修訂版中不僅收錄了“glamping”(豪華野營)、“air-punching”(向空中揮拳,指開心時或成功后向空中揮舞握緊的拳頭的動作)、“sweary”(滿口臟話的)以及“budgie smugglers”(緊身泳褲)這樣的新詞及短語,還包括了“bittem”這樣一千多年前出現(xiàn)的舊詞,指的是船的龍骨或相對較低的部分。
新詞源自何處呢?有些借用了其他語種,如“narcocorrido”(西班牙語中指一種傳統(tǒng)墨西哥民謠,講述毒販的事跡)、“potjie”(源自南非語,指架在火上使用的三足鑄鐵鍋)以及“shishito”(源自日語,指亞洲菜里使用的一種特殊的辣椒)。
有些新詞深刻揭示了當今人們的關注點,例如詞組“assisted death”(協(xié)助死亡)。這一類新詞匯還包括“agender”(無性別),我們對性別有著根深蒂固的二元思維,而“agender”一詞就源自公眾對這二元思維的一種反應。OED推斷這個單詞在2000年開始使用。
OED還增添了新的“首字母縮略詞”,在原有的縮略語詞表——包括了IMF (世界貨幣基金組織)和IDB (非法鉆石購買者)——之外新增了ICYMI (萬一你錯過了)、IRL (現(xiàn)實生活中)、IDK (我不知道)和FFS (如果你還不知道就趕緊查查吧?。?。
許多新詞條是合并幾個單詞構成的。有些新詞條符合“合成詞”的定義,即由兩個詞連接在一起組成的詞。例如,“air-punching”“bare-knuckle”(不帶拳擊手套的)和“self-identity”(自我認同)。還有一些詞只是把兩個單詞并排放在一起組合而成,比如:“power couple”(有影響力的夫妻)、“hockey mum”(冰球媽媽)、“test drive”(試駕)和“star sign”(星座)。
很顯然一些新詞,比如“budgie smugglers”,已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)了一段時間。OED將這個單詞的出現(xiàn)追溯到了1998年澳大利亞拍攝的系列電視偽紀錄片《奧運會》中,該片講述的是2000年悉尼奧運會。
另一方面,“battle of the sexes”(性別大戰(zhàn))前不久才被收錄進詞典里,但OED首次證實它的用法可以追溯到1723年。
此外,一些舊詞有了新的形式。例如,對于動詞“exploit”(剝削,開發(fā)),OED收錄了其形容詞形式“exploitational”、副詞形式“exploitatively”以及表示開拓者或剝削者之意的名詞形式“exploiter”。
對于動詞“swear”(咒罵),OED如今收錄了“sweary”,它既作名詞(罵人的詞可以叫做“sweary”),也作形容詞(用來形容喜歡罵人的人或經(jīng)常被用來罵人的物)。
為什么要等待?
那么,單詞是怎樣被收錄到詞典中的呢?詞典學家,也就是編纂詞典的人,只會收錄有證據(jù)顯示在不同的語境下使用了一段時間的詞匯。
一部詞典中不可能收錄一種語言的所有詞匯。就我所知,僅有的估算表明,超過一半的英語詞匯沒有被記載在詞典中。由于這項研究是基于谷歌圖書語料庫開展的,因此數(shù)據(jù)只是源自大學圖書館收藏的已出版的圖書。我們可以有把握地說這一數(shù)據(jù)是很保守的。
世界上大約有4億人將英語當做母語使用,而語言學家大衛(wèi)·克里斯托估計有三倍以上的人口把英語作為第二語言使用。由于殖民地化,在巴巴多斯、新加坡以及伯利茲這些不同的國家,英語都是其主要語言。
此次OED最新的更新包括了其他英語變體的書面形式和口語發(fā)音,包括澳大利亞、加拿大、加勒比海地區(qū)、愛爾蘭、新西蘭、菲律賓、蘇格蘭、新加坡、馬來西亞和南非使用的英語變體。盡管OED已經(jīng)涵蓋了一些英語變體,但此次的范圍有所擴大。
對新加坡英語的贊美
新加坡英語這次是首次被收錄進《牛津英語詞典》。講新加坡英語的人(也稱作“Singlish”)——我把自己算作說這一方言的優(yōu)秀之人——看到“ang moh”(紅毛,指具有西方血統(tǒng)的白皮膚的人)、“killer litter”(垃圾殺手,又稱高空墜物,指被從高樓扔下因此會危及樓下人安全的物體)以及“shiok”(好的,用于表達贊賞)這些詞被收錄進去,將會非常高興。
要是你認為英語屬于盎格魯人,那么你可以開始把“yum cha”(飲茶)這樣的詞踢出你的詞庫了。為了能好好取笑一下澳大利亞英語和印度英語變體,不妨試試“德里語言學研究所”開設的“如何說澳大利亞英語”系列課程。
通過把“世界英語”加到英式和美式英語的詞條里,OED打開了潘多拉的盒子。比如,你不妨讀一下OED選擇“南非白人英語”作為模板代表南非英語詞條時所做的解釋。
OED的變化提醒我們,語言不是固定不變的實體。不僅英語在不斷變化,而且它的邊界也在變化。
語言是開放而富有活力的:對其他方言、對它的多種多樣的使用者,都沒有限制。語言的力量和魅力便在于此。