By+Ilana+E.+Strauss

People have speculated for centuries about a future without work， and today is no different， with academics， writers， and activists once again warning that technology is replacing human workers. Some imagine that the coming work-free world will be defined by inequality： A few wealthy people will own all the capital， and the masses will struggle in an impoverished wasteland.

A different， less paranoid1）， and not mutually exclusive prediction holds that the future will be a wasteland of a different sort， one characterized by purposelessness： Without jobs to give their lives meaning， people will simply become lazy and depressed. Indeed， todays unemployed dont seem to be having a great time.

But it doesnt necessarily follow2） from findings like these that a world without work would be filled with malaise3）. Such visions are based on the downsides of being unemployed in a society built on the concept of employment. In the absence of work， a society designed with other ends in mind could yield strikingly different circumstances for the future of labor and leisure. Today， the virtue of work may be a bit overblown. “Many jobs are boring， degrading， unhealthy， and a squandering4） of human potential，” says John Danaher， a lecturer at the National University of Ireland in Galway. “Global surveys find that the vast majority of people are unhappy at work.”

These days， because leisure time is relatively scarce for most workers， people use their free time to counterbalance the intellectual and emotional demands of their jobs. “When I come home from a hard days work， I often feel tired，” Danaher says， adding， “In a world in which I dont have to work， I might feel rather different”—perhaps different enough to throw himself into a hobby or a passion project with the intensity usually reserved for professional matters.

Having a job can provide a measure of financial stability， but in addition to stressing over how to cover lifes necessities， todays jobless are frequently made to feel like social outcasts. “People who avoid work are viewed as parasites5） and leeches6），” Danaher says. Perhaps as a result of this cultural attitude， for most people， self-esteem and identity are tied up intricately with their job， or lack of job.

Plus， in many modern-day societies， unemployment can also be downright boring. In many countries， towns and cities arent really built for lots of free time. The roots of this boredom may run even deeper. Peter Gray， a professor of psychology at Boston College， thinks that if work disappeared tomorrow， people might be at a loss for things to do， growing bored and depressed because they have forgotten how to play. “We teach children a distinction between play and work，” Gray explains. “Work is something that you dont want to do but you have to do.” He says this training， which starts in school， eventually “drills the play” out of many children， who grow up to be adults who are aimless when presented with free time.

“Sometimes people retire from their work， and they dont know what to do，” Gray says. “Theyve lost the ability to create their own activities.” Its a problem that never seems to plague young children. “There are no three-year-olds that are going to be lazy and depressed because they dont have a structured activity，” he says.

But need it be this way？ Work-free societies are more than just a thought experiment—theyve existed throughout human history. Consider hunter-gatherers7）， who have no bosses， paychecks， or eight-hour workdays. Ten thousand years ago， all humans were hunter-gatherers， and some still are. Daniel Everett， an anthropologist at Bentley University， in Massachusetts， studied a group of hunter-gathers in the Amazon called the Pirah? for years. According to Everett， while some might consider hunting and gathering work， hunter-gatherers dont. “They think of it as fun，” he says. “They dont have a concept of work the way we do.”

“Its a pretty laid-back8） life most of the time，” Everett says. He described a typical day for the Pirah?： A man might get up， spend a few hours canoeing and fishing， have a barbecue， go for a swim， bring fish back to his family， and play until the evening.

Does this leisurely life lead to the depression and purposelessness seen among so many of todays unemployed？ “Ive never seen anything remotely like depression there， except people who are physically ill，” Everett says. “They have a blast9）. They play all the time.” While many may consider work a staple of human life， work as it exists today is a relatively new invention in the course of thousands of years of human culture. “We think its bad to just sit around with nothing to do，” says Everett. “For the Pirah?， its quite a desirable state.”

Gray likens these aspects of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the carefree adventures of many children in developed countries， who at some point in life are expected to put away childish things. But that hasnt always been the case. According to Gary Crosss book A Social History of Leisure Since 1600， free time in the U.S. looked quite different before the 18th and 19th centuries. Farmers mixed work and play in their daily lives. There were no managers or overseers， so they would switch fluidly between working， taking breaks， joining in neighborhood games， playing pranks， and spending time with family and friends. Not to mention festivals and other gatherings： France， for instance， had 84 holidays a year in 1700.

This all changed， writes Cross， during the Industrial Revolution， which replaced farms with factories and farmers with employees. Factory owners created a more rigidly scheduled environment that clearly divided work from play. Meanwhile， clocks began to give life a quicker pace， and religious leaders， who traditionally endorsed most festivities， started associating leisure with sin and tried to replace rowdy festivals with sermons.

As workers started moving into cities， families no longer spent their days together on the farm. Instead， men worked in factories， women stayed home or worked in factories， and children went to school， stayed home， or worked in factories too. During the workday， families became physically separated， which affected the way people entertained themselves： Adults stopped playing “childish” games and sports， and the streets were mostly wiped clean of fun.

With workers old outlets for play having disappeared in a haze of factory smoke， many of them turned to new， more urban ones. Bars became a refuge where tired workers drank and watched live shows with singing and dancing. If free time means beer and TV to a lot of Americans， this might be why.

At times， developed societies have， for a privileged few， produced lifestyles that were nearly as play-filled as hunter-gatherers. Throughout history， aristocrats who earned their income simply by owning land spent only a tiny portion of their time minding financial exigencies. According to Randolph Trumbach， a professor of history at Baruch College， 18th-century English aristocrats spent their days visiting friends， eating elaborate meals， hosting salons and hunting.

Its unlikely that a world without work would be abundant enough to provide everyone with such lavish lifestyles. But Gray insists that injecting any amount of additional play into peoples lives would be a good thing， because， contrary to that 17th-century aristocrat， play is about more than pleasure. Through play， Gray says， children learn how to strategize， express their creativity， cooperate， overcome narcissism， and get along with other people. While most of todays adults may have forgotten how to play， Gray doesnt believe its an unrecoverable skill.

When people ponder the nature of a world without work， they often transpose present-day assumptions about labor and leisure onto a future where they might no longer apply； if automation does end up rendering a good portion of human labor unnecessary， such a society might exist on completely different terms than societies do today.

So what might a work-free world look like？ Gray has some ideas. School， for one thing， would be very different. “I think our system of schooling would completely fall by the wayside，” says Gray. “The primary purpose of the educational system is to teach people to work. I dont think anybody would want to put our kids through what we put our kids through now.” Instead， Gray suggests that teachers could build lessons around what students are most curious about.

Social life might look a lot different too. Since the Industrial Revolution， mothers， fathers， and children have spent most of their waking hours apart. In a work-free world， people of different ages might come together again. “We would become much less isolated from each other，” Gray imagines， perhaps a little optimistically.

In general， without work， Gray thinks people would be more likely to pursue their passions， get involved in the arts， and visit friends. Perhaps leisure would cease to be about unwinding after a period of hard work， and would instead become a more colorful， varied thing. “We wouldnt have to be as self-oriented as we think we have to be now，” he says. “I believe we would become more human.”

. New Oriental English

工作

沒有工作的未來會怎么樣？人們就此問題已經(jīng)臆測了數(shù)世紀(jì)，現(xiàn)在還在繼續(xù)，因?yàn)閷W(xué)者、作家、激進(jìn)分子紛紛再次警醒人們，科學(xué)技術(shù)正在代替人類工作者。有些人猜測，那個(gè)即將到來、沒有工作的未來的主要特點(diǎn)將是不平等：少數(shù)富人擁有所有資本，而大眾將在貧瘠的廢墟中掙扎。

有一個(gè)預(yù)測與眾不同，少些偏執(zhí)且不相互矛盾。它認(rèn)為未來將會變成另類的廢墟，以漫無目的為特征：沒有了賦予生活意義的工作，人們就會變得懶惰和消沉。今天的失業(yè)人群確實(shí)沒什么好日子過。

不過，由諸如此類的發(fā)現(xiàn)未必就能得出結(jié)論說，沒有工作的未來將充斥著不滿。這樣的展望是以失業(yè)的消極面為基礎(chǔ)的，而這樣的消極面只存在于建立在就業(yè)觀念上的社會中。沒有了工作，社會追求的目標(biāo)就會有所不同，在這樣的社會里，勞動和休閑將會別有一番境況。如今，我們或許過度渲染了工作的優(yōu)點(diǎn)?！昂芏喙ぷ鳠o聊、不體面、不健康，是對人類潛能的一種浪費(fèi)，”戈?duì)栱f市愛爾蘭國立大學(xué)的講師約翰·達(dá)納赫說道，“環(huán)球調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)，絕大部分人工作時(shí)都不開心。”

現(xiàn)如今，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)勞動者都相對缺少休閑時(shí)間，所以人們就利用自己的閑暇時(shí)間去平衡在工作中的智力和情感付出。“結(jié)束一天的辛苦工作回到家時(shí)，我經(jīng)常感到疲憊?！边_(dá)納赫說。他又補(bǔ)充道，“在一個(gè)不需要工作的世界里，我的感受或許會有所不同”——不同到足以使他投身一項(xiàng)業(yè)余愛好或一個(gè)有激情的項(xiàng)目，用通常只在處理工作時(shí)才會有的熱情投入其中。

擁有一份工作，就有了保持經(jīng)濟(jì)穩(wěn)定的手段，但在今天，沒有工作的人除了要承受解決基本生存所需帶來的壓力，還經(jīng)常被弄得感覺自己是被社會遺棄的人?！疤颖芄ぷ鞯娜吮豢闯杉纳x。”達(dá)納赫說道。也許正是因?yàn)檫@種文化態(tài)度，對大部分人來說，自尊和身份就與是否有工作錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜地聯(lián)系在一起。

而且，在大部分的現(xiàn)代社會中，失業(yè)狀態(tài)也會是極其無聊的。在許多國家，城鎮(zhèn)真的不是為大量休閑時(shí)間而建的。這份無聊的根源也許比我們想的更深。波士頓學(xué)院心理學(xué)教授彼得·格雷認(rèn)為，如果明天工作就消失，人們也許會覺得無所事事，變得百無聊賴、消沉不已，因?yàn)樗麄円呀?jīng)忘記如何玩樂?！拔覀兘毯⒆?，玩和工作有區(qū)別，”格雷解釋道，“工作就是你不想去做但必須要做的事情?！彼f，這個(gè)從上學(xué)就開始的訓(xùn)練最終把孩子們“訓(xùn)練得不知道該怎么玩了”，他們長大后一閑下來就失去方向。

“有時(shí)，人們退休后就感覺無事可做，”格雷說，“因?yàn)樗麄兪チ俗约赫覙纷拥哪芰??！钡⒆觽兯坪鯊奈礊檫@個(gè)問題苦惱過?！皼]有哪個(gè)三歲孩子會因?yàn)槿狈τ薪M織的活動而感到倦怠或消沉。”他說道。

但是非得如此么？無工作社會不只是一個(gè)思維實(shí)驗(yàn)——縱觀人類歷史，無工作社會是存在過的。細(xì)想一下采獵人，他們沒有老板，沒有工資，沒有八小時(shí)工作日。一萬年前，所有的人類都是采獵人，現(xiàn)在還有一些這樣的人。馬薩諸塞州本特利大學(xué)的人類學(xué)家丹尼爾·埃弗雷特研究亞馬孫一群名叫Pirah?的采獵人多年。有些人可能認(rèn)為采集和狩獵也是工作，但根據(jù)埃弗雷特的觀點(diǎn)，采獵人不這么認(rèn)為?！八麄儼巡杉鳙C看成一種樂趣，他們沒有我們這樣的工作觀念。”他說道。

“大多時(shí)候，那種生活是非常自在的?！?埃弗雷特說。他描述了Pirah?人典型的一天：一個(gè)男人起床，花幾小時(shí)劃船和捕魚，燒烤，游泳，帶著魚回家，然后玩到天黑。

這樣悠閑的生活會帶來我們在當(dāng)今失業(yè)者身上看到的憂郁和無所適從嗎？“在那里我從來沒有看到一丁點(diǎn)和憂郁沾上邊的東西，除非是他們身體上出了問題，”埃弗雷特說，“他們一直玩耍，玩得很開心?！北M管很多人認(rèn)為工作是人類生活的重要部分，但當(dāng)今的工作在人類文明幾千年的歷史進(jìn)程中只是個(gè)相對較新的發(fā)明。“我們認(rèn)為無所事事地坐著不好，但對于Pirah?來說，這是非常理想的狀態(tài)。”

格雷把采獵者生活的這些方面比作發(fā)達(dá)國家的很多孩子會參加的無憂無慮的冒險(xiǎn)活動，而等這些孩子到了人生的某個(gè)階段，人們就期望他們把孩子氣的玩耍拋諸腦后。但情況并非總是如此。根據(jù)加里·克羅斯的著作《17世紀(jì)之后的休閑社會史》，就美國而言，在18和19世紀(jì)之前，閑暇時(shí)光與現(xiàn)在有很大不同。當(dāng)時(shí)，農(nóng)民在日常生活中把工作和玩樂混在一起。因?yàn)闆]有管理者和監(jiān)督者，他們可以在以下活動中自由切換：工作、休息、加入鄰居玩的游戲、開玩笑、陪家人和朋友。節(jié)日或其他集會就更不用說了：比如，1700年，法國一年就有84個(gè)節(jié)日。

這些都隨著工業(yè)革命改變了，農(nóng)場變成了工廠，農(nóng)民變成了雇員，格羅斯寫道。工廠主創(chuàng)造了一種更加嚴(yán)格地遵照時(shí)間表工作的環(huán)境，徹底地把工作與玩樂區(qū)分開。與此同時(shí)，鐘表開始加快生活的節(jié)奏，一直以來支持大多數(shù)節(jié)日的宗教領(lǐng)袖也開始把休閑和罪惡聯(lián)系在一起，并且嘗試用布道代替吵鬧的節(jié)日。

在勞動者搬進(jìn)城市的同時(shí)，家人們不再待在農(nóng)場里一起度日。取而代之的是，男人在工廠里工作，女人待在家里或到工廠工作，孩子去學(xué)校、待在家里或也到工廠工作。工作日里，家人們是分開的，這影響了人們的娛樂方式：大人們不再玩“孩子氣”的游戲和運(yùn)動，大街上的趣味活動也幾乎被清除得干干凈凈。

隨著勞動者玩樂的老方法消失在工廠的煙霧中，他們中的許多人轉(zhuǎn)向新的、更城市化的玩法。酒吧變成提供慰藉之所，疲倦的工人們在那里喝酒并觀看現(xiàn)場歌舞表演。如果說閑暇時(shí)光對許多美國人來說就是啤酒和電視，這大概就是原因。

有時(shí)，發(fā)達(dá)社會為少數(shù)享有特權(quán)的人創(chuàng)造出幾乎和采獵者一樣的充滿玩樂的生活方式?？v觀歷史，僅靠擁有土地賺取收入的貴族們只花極少的時(shí)間關(guān)心自己的經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)。根據(jù)巴魯克學(xué)院歷史學(xué)教授倫道夫·特魯姆巴赫的說法，18世紀(jì)的英國貴族整天訪友，享受盛宴，舉辦沙龍和打獵。

沒有工作的世界不大可能會富足到可以給每個(gè)人提供這樣奢華的生活方式。但是格雷堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為，把額外的玩樂注入人們的生活中，不管多少，都是一件好事，因?yàn)榕c17世紀(jì)的貴族不同，玩樂帶來的不止愉悅。格雷說，通過玩樂，孩子學(xué)會如何制定策略，如何表現(xiàn)自己的創(chuàng)造力，如何與別人合作，如何克服自戀，如何和他人友好相處。今天大部分成年人或許已經(jīng)忘記如何玩樂，但是格雷相信，這并非不可恢復(fù)的技能。

當(dāng)人們思考無工作世界的本質(zhì)時(shí)，他們經(jīng)常把當(dāng)下有關(guān)勞動和休閑的設(shè)想嫁接到未來，而這些設(shè)想在未來也許并不適用。如果自動化最后的確導(dǎo)致大部分的人類勞動變得沒有必要，那么那個(gè)社會和當(dāng)今社會的存在基礎(chǔ)或許是完全不同的。

所以，無工作的世界將會是怎樣的呢？格雷有一些看法。首先，學(xué)校會有所不同?！拔艺J(rèn)為我們的學(xué)校教育系統(tǒng)會被完全拋在一邊，”他說，“現(xiàn)在，教育系統(tǒng)的主要目的是教人們?nèi)绾喂ぷ鳌Ｎ艺J(rèn)為任何人都不會愿意讓孩子遭受現(xiàn)在我們讓孩子遭受的一切?！毕喾矗窭渍J(rèn)為老師們會圍繞孩子們最好奇的內(nèi)容設(shè)置課程。

社交生活可能也會和現(xiàn)在大相徑庭。從工業(yè)革命開始，在大部分醒著的時(shí)間，媽媽、爸爸和孩子都是分開的。在無工作的世界，各個(gè)年齡段的人或許會重新待在一起?！拔覀儽舜酥g隔絕的狀態(tài)會大大減少?！备窭紫胂笾?，或許有些過于樂觀。

在格雷看來，總體來說，沒有了工作，人們更可能去追求激情，沉浸于藝術(shù)，拜訪朋友。或許休閑不再是一段時(shí)間辛苦勞動后的放松，而是成為一件更加豐富多彩的事情?！拔覀儾槐卦傧裎覀儸F(xiàn)在認(rèn)為自己必須做的那樣，進(jìn)行自我定位，”他說，“我相信我們會變得更加人性。”

人工智能技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展讓很多人開始恐慌：如果機(jī)器代替人類，人類沒有了工作，整天無所事事，那世界會糟糕成啥樣？不過，有些研究者覺得他們有些杞人憂天。因?yàn)槿祟悰]有工作可做的情況自古有之，那時(shí)人們自給自足，過得輕松快樂。想一想，不用上班，沒有工作束縛，只做自己喜歡的事，這種生活方式是不是更人性化？也許，沒有工作的世界，并沒有那么可怕。