郜雪蓮 盧瑾
【摘?要】自20世紀(jì)70年歐洲國家首先報(bào)道了欺凌事件后,校園欺凌逐漸被大家所關(guān)注,欺凌導(dǎo)致的青少年自殺事件屢見不鮮,而我國對欺凌和自殺的認(rèn)識及研究仍然不甚清晰,此本從欺凌的概念、分類、同自殺的關(guān)系、國內(nèi)外研究進(jìn)展等對欺凌進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)的回顧。
【關(guān)鍵詞】欺凌;自殺;綜述
【中圖分類號】R197???【文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼】A????【文章編號】1672-3783(2020)02-0266-02
一直以來,全世界對欺凌的定義眾說紛紜,未達(dá)成一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的概念。欺凌“mobbing/mobbning”一詞第一次出現(xiàn)是在20世紀(jì)70年代的歐洲國家,但未有明確的定義[1]。1986年Olweus定義欺凌(bullying)是指“當(dāng)一個(gè)學(xué)生反復(fù)和長期的遭受其他一個(gè)或多個(gè)同學(xué)的負(fù)面行為時(shí)[2]?!痹?014年,美國疾病控制和預(yù)防中心將欺凌行為定義為:另一名或一群不是兄弟姐妹或目前約會伙伴的年輕人做出的任何不受歡迎的攻擊性行為,涉及觀察到或感覺到的權(quán)力不平衡,并重復(fù)多次或極有可能重復(fù)[3]。雖然全世界對欺凌缺乏一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的概念[4],但共同具備的特征可以總結(jié)為以下三點(diǎn):重復(fù)性、故意性、力量不平衡性。
欺凌涉及許多不同的角色:受害者、欺凌者、欺凌-受害者、旁觀者。受害者被描述為持續(xù)遭受到傷害的青少年;欺凌者為對他人施加傷害的青少年,也稱為欺凌實(shí)施者;一些青少年即是受害者又是欺凌實(shí)施者,則稱為欺凌-受害者;還有一部分為旁觀者,即幫助受害者的捍衛(wèi)者,或置身世外,或積極應(yīng)對[5]。
欺凌的形式可以是基于身體的,言語的,關(guān)系的(即社會的)或基于網(wǎng)絡(luò)的攻擊。
欺凌會導(dǎo)致各種不同的內(nèi)化和外化問題[5],包括各種心理社會問題(如抑郁,焦慮和孤獨(dú)[6])自尊心低[7]和創(chuàng)傷后應(yīng)激障礙等[8]。欺凌對全世界的兒童和青少年來說都是一個(gè)非常重要的問題[9]。估計(jì)全世界有多達(dá)2.46億青少年遭受校園暴力或欺凌[10]。現(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)表明,12至18歲的青少年中有很大一部分經(jīng)歷過同齡人的傳統(tǒng)欺凌行為。對傳統(tǒng)欺凌受害情況的準(zhǔn)確估計(jì)因衡量方法的不同而有所不同,甚至在一些地區(qū),欺凌的發(fā)生率達(dá)100%[11]。但多份報(bào)告指出,傳統(tǒng)欺凌受害現(xiàn)象通常發(fā)生在30%至40%的青少年中[12]。
此外,由于目前網(wǎng)絡(luò)和電子設(shè)備發(fā)展迅速,在兒童青少年中的網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌也越來越多[13]。據(jù)報(bào)道,在兒童或青少年時(shí)期,網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌的發(fā)生率在10%至57%之間[14-16]。網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌通常被定義為團(tuán)體或個(gè)人通過電子形式對無法輕易自衛(wèi)的受害者進(jìn)行的反復(fù)和長期實(shí)施的侵犯性、故意行為[17],但對于網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌是應(yīng)該作為一種單獨(dú)的現(xiàn)象來對待,還是作為傳統(tǒng)欺凌行為的延伸,仍未達(dá)成共識[18]。傳統(tǒng)欺凌和網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌之間也存在著重疊。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),參與網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌者的80%也參與到了傳統(tǒng)欺凌中[19]。
青少年自殺是一個(gè)世界性問題,在全世界的10-19歲的兒童青少年中,自殺是導(dǎo)致死亡的第三大死因[20]。在低中收入國家中,13-15歲的青少年中的15.3%在過去一年中曾認(rèn)真考慮過自殺[21]。一項(xiàng)mete分析對40項(xiàng)中國研究中的320,375名學(xué)生進(jìn)行了調(diào)查,結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)中學(xué)生中存在自殺意念的占18.0%(95%CI:16.6-19.5)[22]。導(dǎo)致自殺行為的危險(xiǎn)因素有很多,(如抑郁癥、精神障礙、藥物濫用、既往自殺未遂、自殺家族史、家庭暴力、自殺行為暴露或監(jiān)禁)、誘發(fā)事件和環(huán)境狀況等[23]。在一篇系統(tǒng)綜述中發(fā)現(xiàn),經(jīng)歷過的逆境或負(fù)性生活事件的數(shù)量似乎與青少年自殺傾向呈正劑量-反應(yīng)關(guān)系,這表明青少年自殺風(fēng)險(xiǎn)會積累[24]。欺凌對兒童青少年的傷害是持久的,這種影響可能會持續(xù)到成年[25]。
本文對近幾年關(guān)于欺凌和自殺的研究進(jìn)行綜述,了解國內(nèi)外研究進(jìn)展以及不足,并展望未來的研究方向,為我國兒童青少年的心理健康預(yù)防及治療提供一定的依據(jù)。
1?欺凌和自殺的關(guān)系
越來越多的人也意識到,欺凌是青少年為何及何時(shí)考慮自殺的關(guān)鍵因素[26],會增加自殺意念及自殺行為[26,?27]。已有大量的研究集中在欺凌對青少年自殺的影響[26],但大多數(shù)研究來自于為西方發(fā)達(dá)國家[28-30],在2018年的一項(xiàng)mete分析中發(fā)現(xiàn),與非受害者相比,那些經(jīng)歷過網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌的受害者發(fā)生自殺行為的可能性是2.10倍,企圖自殺的可能性是2.57倍,有自殺想法的可能性是2.15倍;而網(wǎng)絡(luò)欺凌實(shí)施者表現(xiàn)出自殺行為的可能性是非實(shí)施者的1.21倍,經(jīng)歷自殺念頭的可能性是非實(shí)施者的1.23倍[31]。一項(xiàng)對來自中國的20509名高中生的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),欺凌與自殺意念的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加有關(guān),然而,這項(xiàng)研究并未探討欺凌與自殺未遂之間的關(guān)系[32]。然而,在欺凌和自殺意念、自殺企圖及自殺行為之間的聯(lián)系仍然存在爭議性。一部分研究發(fā)現(xiàn)欺凌同自殺之間存在著正相關(guān)[29,?30]。相反,一些研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者之間存在關(guān)聯(lián)性[33]。這也表明,欺凌對自殺的影響受到多種因素的影響:
1.1性別的差異
關(guān)于欺凌,自殺行為和性別之間關(guān)聯(lián)的研究結(jié)果參差不齊。Klomek及其同事發(fā)現(xiàn),既是欺凌者又是受害者的男生具有較高的自殺風(fēng)險(xiǎn),同不是欺凌者或只是欺凌受害者的男生相比較[34]。一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn),女生只要參與欺凌,無論作為欺凌者,受害者或欺凌-受害者中的哪個(gè)角色,都比未參與欺凌的女生具有更高的自殺行為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[33,?35]。也有部分研究顯示,無論性別如何,自殺意念在欺凌-受害者中最常見[36]。
1.2社會心理因素
既往的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),欺凌和自殺未遂之間可以通過抑郁,焦慮,自卑,絕望,孤獨(dú)[37]或不利家庭環(huán)境的影響(例如家庭暴力,不適當(dāng)?shù)慕逃绞剑38]等危險(xiǎn)因素來調(diào)節(jié)。
1.3?不同種族或國家之間文化背景的差異
一項(xiàng)納入48個(gè)國家12-18歲的青少年研究發(fā)現(xiàn),欺凌會增加自殺,但各國自殺率存在很大差異,欺凌自殺率最高的國家是薩摩亞(OR13.52?95%CI10.23-17.86),而在阿富汗無差異[39]。直接按造成這種情況的原因尚不十分清楚,但可能為以下原因:可獲得自殺的途徑,可獲得的醫(yī)療服務(wù),自殺的文化以及社會的可接受度[39]。
2?欺凌導(dǎo)致自殺的機(jī)制
2.1神經(jīng)生物學(xué)機(jī)制
下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺(HPA)軸可促進(jìn)生理和行為適應(yīng)環(huán)境的變化。HPA軸的終產(chǎn)物為皮質(zhì)醇,對人體具有重要作用。HPA軸對壓力的適應(yīng)性反應(yīng)特征是皮質(zhì)醇相對快速增加,隨后逐漸減少。反之,當(dāng)皮質(zhì)醇分泌不平衡時(shí),對身體產(chǎn)生有害影響。HPA軸的異??赡茉黾幼詺⒌娘L(fēng)險(xiǎn)[40],而持續(xù)遭受欺凌可能導(dǎo)致下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺軸功能障礙[41],進(jìn)而增加自殺行為的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[40]。
2.2社會心理學(xué)機(jī)制
一般緊張理論General?Strain?Theory?(GST)是Agnew在Merton的傳統(tǒng)緊張理論基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展,多應(yīng)用于犯罪學(xué)。幾項(xiàng)研究應(yīng)用一般緊張理論來解釋欺凌與自殺、抑郁等行為之間的關(guān)系,并得到了數(shù)據(jù)的支持,研究者提出緊張的社會關(guān)系和事件會使個(gè)人產(chǎn)生消極的行為來應(yīng)對負(fù)面情緒[42],而欺凌是一個(gè)典型的緊張來源之一[43],經(jīng)歷欺凌會導(dǎo)致受害者產(chǎn)生內(nèi)化或外化的行為,因此加劇了受害者的消極行為,從而產(chǎn)生自殺意念、自殺企圖甚至自殺行為[12,?28,?44]。
3?小結(jié)
欺凌現(xiàn)象普遍存在于兒童期和青春期,它不僅僅對兒童青少年的身心健康造成嚴(yán)重傷害,也是一個(gè)重大的公共衛(wèi)生問題。經(jīng)歷欺凌的未成年人自殺機(jī)率是未經(jīng)歷的幾倍,在制定自殺預(yù)防策略時(shí),應(yīng)將欺凌情況考慮在內(nèi)。目前的研究多集中在橫斷面,需要進(jìn)一步進(jìn)行縱向研究,尋找欺凌和自殺所涉及的因果關(guān)系及調(diào)節(jié)中介因素,以更好的建立行之有效的預(yù)防干預(yù)措施應(yīng)對這一世界性問題。
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