摘要:肝衰竭是臨床常見的嚴重肝病癥候群,病死率極高。多年來,各國學者對肝衰竭的定義、病因、分類、分型、診斷、治療和預后等問題不斷進行探索。根據(jù)國內(nèi)外最新研究成果,中華醫(yī)學會感染病學分會肝衰竭與人工肝學組和中華醫(yī)學會肝病學分會重型肝病與人工肝學組在我國《肝衰竭診治指南(2018年版)》的基礎上對指南進行了全面更新,以指導和規(guī)范肝衰竭的臨床診療。
關鍵詞:肝功能衰竭;肝,人工;診斷;治療;指南
肝衰竭是臨床常見的嚴重肝病癥候群,病死率極高[1]。多年來,各國學者對肝衰竭的定義、病因、分類、分型、診斷、治療和預后等問題不斷進行探索。2005年,美國肝病學會(AASLD)發(fā)布了《急性肝衰竭處理的建議書》[2]。2006年10月,中華醫(yī)學會感染病學分會肝衰竭與人工肝學組和中華醫(yī)學會肝病學分會重型肝病與人工肝學組制訂了我國第一部《肝衰竭診療指南》[3],從定義、誘因、分類、診斷和治療等方面對我國肝衰竭進行了系統(tǒng)而精要的闡述,既與國際接軌,又獨具中國特色,診斷分型突出了實用性,指導和規(guī)范了我國肝衰竭的臨床診療,并于2012、2018年進行了2次修訂[4-5]。亞太肝病學會(APASL)于2009年首次提出針對慢加急性肝衰竭(acute-on-chronic liver failure,ACLF)定義和診斷標準的專家共識[6],分別于2014、2019年進行了更新[7-8]。歐洲肝病學會(EASL)和北美終末期肝病研究聯(lián)盟(NACSELD)分別于2013和2014年提出了ACLF診斷標準[9-10]。2017年,中國重型乙型病毒性肝炎研究小組(COSSH)基于乙型肝炎人群的多中心、前瞻性及大樣本的研究,提出了ACLF診斷的COSSH中國標準[11]。上述四大標準均被收錄至歐洲2023年發(fā)布的《慢加急性肝衰竭臨床實踐指南》[12]和美國2024年發(fā)布的《慢加急性肝衰竭和危重肝硬化患者管理實踐指南》[13]。中華醫(yī)學會感染病學分會肝衰竭與人工肝學組和中華醫(yī)學會肝病學分會重型肝病與人工肝學組根據(jù)國內(nèi)外最新研究成果,再次對我國《肝衰竭診治指南(2018年版)》[5]進行更新。
《肝衰竭診治指南(2024年版)》(簡稱本指南)旨在使臨床醫(yī)師對肝衰竭的診治有進一步了解,并做出較為合理的決策,并非強制性標準。鑒于肝衰竭是由多種病因引起的復雜病理生理過程,本指南不可能包括或解決肝衰竭診治中的所有問題。因此,針對具體病情,臨床醫(yī)師應參照本指南,充分了解肝衰竭的最佳臨床證據(jù)和現(xiàn)有的醫(yī)療資源,在全面考慮患者具體病情及其意愿的基礎上,制訂合理的診治方案。
隨著對肝衰竭發(fā)病機制及診斷、治療研究的逐漸深入,本指南將根據(jù)最新的臨床醫(yī)學證據(jù)不斷更新和完善。本指南的制訂遵守了國內(nèi)外權威學術組織制訂的基本流程和程序,采用英國牛津大學循證醫(yī)學中心證據(jù)分級(2011年版)進行證據(jù)評估,根據(jù)GRADE推薦標準對推薦強度進行評估[14](表1、2)。
1"""" 肝衰竭的定義和病因
1.1" 定義"""""" 肝衰竭是由多種因素引起的嚴重肝臟損害,導致肝臟合成、解毒、代謝和生物轉(zhuǎn)化功能嚴重障礙或失代償,出現(xiàn)以黃疸、凝血功能障礙、肝腎綜合征、肝性腦病及腹水等為主要表現(xiàn)的一組臨床癥候群。
1.2" 病因"""""" 在我國引起成人肝衰竭的主要病因是肝炎病毒[尤其是乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)],其次是藥物及肝毒性物質(zhì)(如酒精、化學制劑等)[11,15]。兒童肝衰竭多見于遺傳代謝性疾病。肝衰竭的常見病因見表3。
2"""" 肝衰竭的分類和診斷
肝衰竭分類與診斷對于臨床精準診治管理極其重要,并與病因、誘因及發(fā)病機制等密切相關[11, 16-17]。28、90d生存情況是患者長期預后的關鍵時間點,關注肝衰竭的動態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)歸分型有助于臨床早診早治與預后判斷[18-20]。
2.1" 分類"""""" 基于基礎肝病病史、起病特點及病情進展速度,肝衰竭分為4類:急性肝衰竭(acute liver failure,ALF)、亞急性肝衰竭(subacute liver failure,SALF)、慢加急性(亞急性)肝衰竭[acute (subacute)-on-chronic liver failure,ACLF或SACLF]和慢性肝衰竭(chronic liver failure,CLF),見表4。
2.2" 組織病理學表現(xiàn)
組織病理學檢查在肝衰竭診斷、分類及預后判定上具有重要價值,但由于肝衰竭患者的凝血功能嚴重障礙,實施經(jīng)皮肝穿刺具有較高的風險,在臨床工作中應特別注意,但也可根據(jù)臨床實際情況,選擇相對出血風險小的經(jīng)頸內(nèi)靜脈肝穿刺。多項多中心的回顧性研究均表明,經(jīng)頸靜脈肝穿刺在凝血功能障礙、腹水等高危患者中具有較高的安全性[21-23]。
肝衰竭發(fā)生時(CLF除外),肝臟組織學可觀察到廣泛的肝細胞壞死,壞死的部位和范圍因病因和病程的不同而不同。按照壞死的范圍,可分為大塊壞死(壞死范圍超過肝實質(zhì)的2/3)、亞大塊壞死(約占肝實質(zhì)的1/2~2/3)、融合性壞死(相鄰成片的肝細胞壞死)及橋接壞死(較廣泛的融合性壞死,并破壞肝實質(zhì)結(jié)構)。在不同病程肝衰竭肝組織中,可觀察到一次性或多次性的、新舊不一的肝細胞壞死病灶。最新轉(zhuǎn)錄、蛋白和代謝等多組學研究揭示,ACLF發(fā)病機制涉及系統(tǒng)性炎癥反應和免疫代謝失衡等,發(fā)病早期固有免疫激活、炎癥因子風暴,進而發(fā)生適應性免疫抑制或耗竭、代謝紊亂,導致肝臟和/或肝外多器官衰竭[24-27]。
2.2.1""""" ALF 肝細胞呈一次性壞死,可呈大塊或亞大塊壞死,或橋接壞死,伴存活肝細胞嚴重變性,肝竇網(wǎng)狀支架塌陷或部分塌陷。
2.2.2""""" SALF"""""" 肝組織呈新舊不等的亞大塊壞死或橋接壞死;較陳舊的壞死區(qū)網(wǎng)狀纖維塌陷,或有膠原纖維沉積,殘留肝細胞有程度不等的再生,并可見細、小膽管增生和膽汁淤積。
2.2.3""""" ACLF或SACLF"""" 在慢性肝病病理損傷的基礎上,發(fā)生新舊程度不等的肝細胞亞大塊壞死性病變,伴有匯管周圍的小膽管增生,有肝硬化基礎的患者,部分硬化結(jié)節(jié)結(jié)構仍然存在。
2.2.4""""" CLF 彌漫性肝臟纖維化,以及異常增生結(jié)節(jié)形成,可伴有分布不均的肝細胞壞死。
2.3" 臨床診斷
肝衰竭的臨床診斷需要依據(jù)病史、臨床表現(xiàn)和輔助檢查等綜合分析而確定。
2.3.1""""" ALF 無基礎肝病病史,急性起病,4周內(nèi)出現(xiàn)
II級及以上肝性腦病(按II級分類法劃分)并有以下表現(xiàn)者:(1)乏力、厭食、腹脹、惡心及嘔吐等嚴重消化道癥狀;(2)凝血功能障礙,國際標準化比值(international normalized ratio,INR)≥1.5或凝血酶原活動度(prothrombin time activity,PTA)≤40%,并排除其他原因者;(3)總膽紅素(total bilirubin,TBil)進行性升高。
2.3.2""""" SALF"""""" 無基礎肝病病史,起病較急,4~24周出現(xiàn)以下表現(xiàn)者:(1)乏力、厭食、腹脹、惡心及嘔吐等嚴重消化道癥狀;(2)嚴重黃疸,TBil≥10×正常值上限(upperlimit of normal,ULN)或每日上升≥1 mg/dL;(3)凝血功能障礙,INR≥1.5或PTA≤40%,并排除其他原因者;(4)腹水,伴或不伴肝性腦病。
2.3.3""""" ACLF或SACLF"""" ACLF是在慢性肝?。o論有無肝硬化)基礎上,不同誘因?qū)е碌募毙愿喂δ軔夯?,伴隨肝臟和/或肝外器官衰竭,短期內(nèi)高病死率的復雜臨床綜合征[10]。多個國際肝衰竭聯(lián)盟根據(jù)各自區(qū)域的人群特征建立了相應的ACLF診斷標準(表5)。
基于中國人群特征的COSSH診斷標準,將ACLF劃分為1、2、3三個等級[11]。
ACLF 1級(早期):肝衰竭(TBil≥12 mg/dL)合并1.5≤INRlt;2.5,或合并腎功能障礙(肌酐1.5~1.9 mg/dL),或合并I~II級肝性腦?。ˋ1)。
ACLF 2級(中期):出現(xiàn)2個器官衰竭(肝、腎、腦、凝血、呼吸和循環(huán))(A1)。
ACLF 3級(晚期):出現(xiàn)3個或3個以上器官衰竭(肝、腎、腦、凝血、呼吸和循環(huán))(A1)。
本指南的ACLF COSSH分級標準中的1、2、3三個等級相當于《肝衰竭診治指南(2018年版)》中ACLF的早、中、晚期。
2.3.4""""" CLF 在肝硬化基礎上,緩慢出現(xiàn)肝功能進行性減退和失代償:(1)血清TBil升高,常lt;10×ULN;(2)白蛋白明顯降低;(3)血小板計數(shù)明顯下降,INR≥1.5(或PTA≤40%),并排除其他原因者;(4)有頑固性腹水或門靜脈高壓等表現(xiàn);(5)肝性腦病。
在未到達SALF和ACLF診斷標準但患者極度乏力,有嚴重的消化道癥狀、丙氨酸轉(zhuǎn)氨酶(alanine aminotransferase,ALT)和/或天冬氨酸轉(zhuǎn)氨酶(aspartate aminotransferase,AST)大幅度升高,黃疸進行性加深(5 mg/dL≤TBillt;12 mg/dL)或每日上升≥1 mg/dL,有出血傾向,40%lt;PTA≤50%(INRlt;1. 5),考慮肝衰竭前期,要提高警惕,須密切關注病情發(fā)展。
2.4" 肝衰竭診斷格式"" 肝衰竭不是一個獨立的臨床診斷,而是一種功能判斷。在臨床實際應用中,完整的診斷應包括病因、臨床類型及分級,建議按照以下格式書寫:
肝衰竭(分類、分級)
疾病病因診斷(病毒、藥物、酒精、免疫、寄生蟲等)
例如:(1)ACLF 1級
乙型病毒性肝炎
(2)ALF
病因待查
2.5" 療效判斷
2.5.1""""" 療效指標"""""" 肝衰竭主要療效指標是短期生存率(4及12周無移植生存率)。次要療效指標包括:(1)癥狀:患者乏力、納差、腹脹、惡心及嘔吐等臨床癥狀的改善;(2)并發(fā)癥:肝性腦病、腹水、上消化道出血及感染等并發(fā)癥的緩解;(3)器官衰竭:如呼吸、循環(huán)及腎臟等器官功能的恢復;(4)實驗室指標:血液生化學檢查示TBil、PTA、INR等好轉(zhuǎn)。
2.5.2""""" 療效判斷標準
2.5.2.1""" 臨床治愈率"" ALF、SALF以臨床治愈率作為判斷標準:(1)乏力、納差、腹脹、尿少、出血傾向和肝性腦病等臨床癥狀消失;(2)肝功能指標基本恢復;(3)INR或PTA恢復正常。
2.5.2.2""" 臨床好轉(zhuǎn)率"" ACLF或SACLF以臨床好轉(zhuǎn)率作為判斷標準:(1)乏力、納差、腹脹及出血等臨床癥狀明顯好轉(zhuǎn),肝性腦病消失;(2)黃疸、腹水等體征明顯好轉(zhuǎn);(3)肝功能指標明顯好轉(zhuǎn)(TBil≤5×ULN,INR≤1.5或PTA≥40%)。
2.5.2.3""" 臨床惡化"""""" ALF、SALF、ACLF或SACLF臨床惡化標準:(1)乏力、納差、腹脹及出血等臨床癥狀及體征加重;(2)肝功能指標加重;(3)新發(fā)并發(fā)癥和/或肝外臟器功能衰竭,或原有并發(fā)癥加重。
2.6" 預警預后評估""""" 肝衰竭預警預后評估應貫穿診療全程,尤其強調(diào)早期、動態(tài)預后評估的重要性。傳統(tǒng)臨床預后工具包括終末期肝病模型(model for end-stage liver disease,MELD)[28]、MELD聯(lián)合血清Na(MELD-Na)[29]、
iMELD[30]、皇家醫(yī)學院醫(yī)院(King's College Hospital,KCH)標準[31]、序貫器官衰竭評估(sequential organ failure assessment,SOFA)[32]等。KCH標準適用于ALF。MELD、MELD-Na等可用于判斷ACLF預后結(jié)局,但敏感度和特異度較差。國內(nèi)外學者基于上述不同診斷標準,建立并更新了各自標準下ACLF預后評分模型,包括CLIF-C ACLF評分[33]、COSSH-ACLF評分[11]、COSSH-ACLF II評分[34]、APASL-AARC評分[35]和NACSELD-ACLF評分[36](表6)。動態(tài)評估COSSH研究基于乙型肝炎人群的前瞻性開放性大隊列,建立了預警ACLF發(fā)生的COSSH-onset-ACLF評分模型[37]。除基于傳統(tǒng)臨床指標的模型之外,近年來國內(nèi)外學者利用多組學技術等發(fā)現(xiàn)了一系列有助于提高肝衰竭臨床預警預后模型準確度的標志物,但仍有待進一步的驗證和臨床轉(zhuǎn)化[24-26,38-43]。
3"""" 肝衰竭的治療
目前肝衰竭的治療包括3個方面:一是內(nèi)科綜合治療,二是人工肝治療,三是肝移植治療。原則上強調(diào)早診斷、早治療,采取相應的病因治療和綜合治療措施,并積極防治并發(fā)癥,維持或支持器官功能穩(wěn)定。整個治療過程中應動態(tài)評估病情、加強監(jiān)護,及時聯(lián)合人工肝、橋接肝移植,降低病死率。
3.1" 內(nèi)科綜合治療
3.1.1""""" 一般支持治療
(1)臥床休息,減少體力消耗,減輕肝臟負擔,病情穩(wěn)定后加強適當運動(A5)。
(2)加強病情監(jiān)護:評估精神狀態(tài),監(jiān)測生命體征,記錄體質(zhì)量、腹圍及二便變化等;建議完善病因及病情評估相關實驗室檢查,如INR/凝血酶原時間(prothrombin time,PT)、纖維蛋白原、乳酸脫氫酶、血常規(guī)、肝功能、血糖、血脂、電解質(zhì)、血肌酐、尿素氮、血氨、動脈血氣、乳酸、內(nèi)毒素、肝衰竭相關病原微生物、銅藍蛋白、自身免疫性肝病相關抗體檢測,以及肝臟影像學等檢查,定期檢測評估,門靜脈高壓者應酌情完善胃鏡[44](A5)。有條件單位可完成血栓彈力圖或旋轉(zhuǎn)式血栓彈力計、凝血因子V、凝血因子VII、人類白細胞抗原(human leukocyte antigen,HLA)分型、間接測熱法測定靜息能量消耗(resting energy expenditure,REE)等評估項目。
(3)推薦對肝衰竭患者直接進行詳細營養(yǎng)評定,以確定營養(yǎng)不良的類型和程度[45-46],制訂個體化營養(yǎng)支持方案。根據(jù)疾病情況、營養(yǎng)狀態(tài)、消化吸收功能等綜合因素逐步達到每日1.3倍REE或30~35 kcal·kg-1·d-1的能量攝入目標[45-48]。營養(yǎng)支持途徑首選經(jīng)口進食,推薦分餐及夜間加餐、補充維生素和微量元素等,必要時予腸外營養(yǎng)[44,49-50](A4),其中肝衰竭合并肝性腦病患者的營養(yǎng)支持詳見3.1.4。
(4)積極糾正低蛋白血癥,補充白蛋白或新鮮血漿,并酌情補充凝血因子[51](A5)。
(5)監(jiān)測血氣分析和乳酸水平,注意糾正水電解質(zhì)及酸堿平衡紊亂,特別要注意糾正低鈉、低氯、低鉀和低鎂血癥(A5)。
(6)注意消毒隔離,加強口腔護理、肺部及腸道管理,預防醫(yī)院感染發(fā)生(A5)。
3.1.2""""" 對癥治療
3.1.2.1""" 抗炎護肝藥物的應用"" 推薦使用具有抗炎、抗氧化、解毒、利膽和肝細胞膜修復保護作用的藥物,如異甘草酸鎂、水飛薊素、還原型谷胱甘肽、腺苷蛋氨酸和多烯磷脂酰膽堿等[48-49]。不同護肝藥物分別通過抑制炎癥反應、清除活性氧、解毒、免疫調(diào)節(jié)、調(diào)節(jié)能量代謝、改善肝細胞膜穩(wěn)定性、完整性及流動性等途徑,達到減輕肝臟組織損害,促進肝細胞修復和再生,減輕肝內(nèi)膽汁淤積,改善肝功能的目的(A5)。
3.1.2.2""" 微生態(tài)調(diào)節(jié)治療"" 越來越多的證據(jù)表明,腸道微生物群參與肝臟疾病的發(fā)病機制[52-53]。肝衰竭患者存在腸道微生態(tài)失衡,表現(xiàn)為腸道乳酸桿菌、雙歧桿菌等有益菌減少,韋榮球菌、鏈球菌等條件致病菌增多,導致繼發(fā)感染、肝性腦病[54]。而應用腸道微生態(tài)調(diào)節(jié)劑,如雙歧桿菌、乳酸桿菌、戊糖片球菌等益生菌,乳果糖等益生元,以及益生菌和益生元組成的合生元,可改善肝衰竭腸道微生態(tài)[55-56](A5),維持微生態(tài)平衡,減少繼發(fā)感染,降低肝性腦病患者的血氨水平和改善心理測量測試,改善肝衰竭患者預后[57]。糞便菌群移植(faecal microbiota transplantation,F(xiàn)MT)可快速重建健康、平衡的腸道微生態(tài)系統(tǒng),恢復腸道功能,減少感染風險,改善肝功能,可作為一種治療肝衰竭尤其是肝性腦病的新技術[58]。因此,建議肝衰竭患者盡早開展腸道優(yōu)勢菌群十聯(lián)檢檢測,及時發(fā)現(xiàn)腸道微生態(tài)失衡,為及時干預提供依據(jù)[59]。
3.1.2.3""" 免疫調(diào)節(jié)劑的應用""""" 腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素在肝衰竭治療中的應用尚存在不同意見,腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素使用時機、類型和劑量尚無共識。非病毒感染性肝衰竭,如自身免疫性肝炎、藥物誘導的自身免疫性肝炎及急性酒精中毒(重癥酒精性肝炎)等,可考慮腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素治療(甲潑尼龍1.0~1.5 mg·kg-1·d-1)(A1),治療中須密切監(jiān)測,及時評估療效與并發(fā)癥。其他原因所致的ALF前期或早期,若病情發(fā)展迅速且無嚴重感染、出血等并發(fā)癥者,可酌情短期使用[60](B3)。
有報道胸腺肽α1治療ACLF,尤其是合并感染患者,有助于降低90 d病死率[61](B2)。對肝衰竭合并感染患者建議早期應用。粒細胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte colony-stimulating factor,G-CSF)治療能促進ACLF患者CD34(+)細胞的動員,有望提高療效[62](B2)。
其余免疫調(diào)節(jié)劑多應用于自身免疫性肝炎相關肝衰竭的治療,例如嗎替麥考酚酯、他克莫司和環(huán)孢素,可作為使用標準療法(潑尼松龍單用或聯(lián)合硫唑嘌呤)無效的自身免疫性肝炎患者二線用藥,西羅莫司、英夫利昔單抗和利妥昔單抗等可作為三線用藥[63](A2)。
3.1.3""""" 病因治療
明確肝衰竭病因?qū)χ笇е委熂芭袛囝A后具有重要價值,包括查明發(fā)病原因及誘因兩類。對其尚不明確者應積極尋找病因以期達到正確處理的目的[64]。
3.1.3.1""" 去除誘因"""""" 去除如重疊感染、應激、飲酒、勞累、藥物和出血等誘因。
3.1.3.2""" 針對不同病因治療
(1)肝炎病毒感染:HBsAg陽性乙型肝炎患者,不論其HBV DNA是否陽性,及HBV DNA載量高低,建議立即使用核苷(酸)類藥物抗病毒治療。在肝衰竭前、早、中期開始抗病毒治療療效相對較好。對ACLF的有關研究指出,早期快速降低HBV DNA載量是治療的關鍵,若HBV DNA載量在2周內(nèi)能下降2 lg IU/mL,患者存活率可提高[65]??共《舅幬飸獌?yōu)先選擇快速強效的核苷(酸)類藥物,如恩替卡韋、替諾福韋、丙酚替諾福韋和艾米替諾福韋等[65-68](A2)。
丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)RNA陽性的肝衰竭患者,可根據(jù)肝衰竭發(fā)展情況選擇抗病毒時機及藥物治療。若MELD評分<18~20分,可在移植術前盡快開始抗病毒治療,部分患者經(jīng)治療后可從移植列表中移出;若MELD評分≥18~20分,可先行移植術,術后再行抗病毒治療。如果等待移植時間超過6個月,可在移植術前行抗病毒治療。移植后患者一旦出現(xiàn)HCV RNA陽性,應及時抗病毒治療??共《局委熓走x無干擾素的直接抗病毒藥物(direct acting antiviral agents,DAAs)治療方案,必要時根據(jù)HCV基因型、患者耐受情況等進行個體化治療。NS3/4A蛋白酶抑制劑、干擾素禁用于失代償期肝硬化患者。在治療過程中應定期監(jiān)測血液學指標、HCV RNA及不良反應等[69-70](Al)。
有研究報道,戊型肝炎病毒(HEV)導致的肝衰竭患者接受利巴韋林治療,可快速清除HEV[71](B5)。
其他病毒感染:確診或疑似皰疹病毒或水痘-帶狀皰疹病毒感染導致ALF的患者,應使用阿昔洛韋(5~10 mg/kg,1次/8 h,靜脈滴注)或更昔洛韋(5 mg/kg,1次/12 h,靜脈滴注)等治療,危重者可考慮進行人工肝、肝移植。
(2)藥物性肝損傷:因藥物肝毒性所致ALF,應停用所有可疑的藥物,并避免再次使用可疑或同類藥物。追溯過去6個月服用的處方藥、某些中草藥、非處方藥和膳食補充劑的詳細信息(包括服用數(shù)量和最后一次服用的時間),盡可能確定非處方藥的成分。N-乙酰半胱氨酸(NAC)對藥物性肝損傷所致ALF有效[72-73]。懷疑對乙酰氨基酚(acetaminophen,APAP)中毒的ALF患者也可應用NAC,必要時進行人工肝治療。在非APAP引起的ALF患者中,靜脈注射NAC能改善I~II級早期肝性腦病患者的無肝移植生存率,但III~IV級重度肝性腦病的患者通常需要肝移植[74]。確診或疑似毒蕈中毒的ALF患者,考慮應用青霉素G和水飛薊素[75-77](A5)。
肝毒性是免疫檢查點抑制劑(immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs)治療相關不良事件之一,腫瘤患者在接受ICIs治療前應進行評估,并在治療過程中進行肝臟功能的監(jiān)測[78]。在ICIs所致的3級以上肝損傷患者(ALT≥5~20×ULN,TBil≥3~10×ULN)中,應立即停用ICIs,開始使用腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素治療(甲基強的松龍1~2 mg·kg-1·d-1或相當劑量激素),如治療3~5 d后無明顯改善,可考慮加用麥考酚酯或他克莫司[79-80](A3)。藥物治療效果不佳時,盡早聯(lián)合人工肝治療。
(3)妊娠期急性脂肪肝(acute fatty liver of pregnancy,AFLP)/HELLP綜合征導致的肝衰竭:當發(fā)生HELLP綜合征、AFLP使孕婦病情迅速惡化的情況時,應在診斷明確和疾病穩(wěn)定后立即終止妊娠[81-82](A1)。如果終止妊娠后病情仍繼續(xù)進展,需考慮人工肝和肝移植治療。
(4)肝豆狀核變性:肝移植可以挽救肝豆狀核變性所致ACLF患者的生命,提高患者的長期生存率[83](A3)。人工肝聯(lián)合銅螯合劑可用于肝豆狀核變性導致的ALF患者,在較短時間內(nèi)改善病情,有利于過渡到肝移植手術[84-85](A4)。對于術前存在明顯神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀的肝豆狀核變性患者,在肝移植術后應繼續(xù)低銅飲食,并加小劑量鋅劑治療[86]。
3.1.4""""" 并發(fā)癥的內(nèi)科綜合治療
3.1.4.1""" 腦水腫
(1)有顱內(nèi)壓增高者,給予甘露醇0.5~1.0 g/kg或者高滲鹽水治療[87](A3),對于存在腎功能損傷時不宜使用甘露醇,宜使用高滲鹽水[88](A3)。
(2)襻利尿劑,一般選用呋塞米,可與滲透性脫水劑交替使用。
(3)應用人血白蛋白,特別是肝硬化白蛋白偏低的患者,提高膠體滲透壓,可能有助于降低顱內(nèi)壓,減輕腦水腫癥狀。
(4)人工肝支持治療。
(5)腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素不推薦用于控制顱內(nèi)高壓[88](A1)。
3.1.4.2""" 肝性腦病
(1)識別并去除誘因,如嚴重感染、出血及電解質(zhì)紊亂等。
(2)調(diào)整蛋白質(zhì)攝入及營養(yǎng)支持,為減輕肝臟負擔及預防肝性腦病的發(fā)生和加重,建議減少蛋白質(zhì)攝入,一般情況下蛋白質(zhì)攝入量維持在1.2~1.5 g·kg-1·d-1,III級以上肝性腦病者蛋白質(zhì)攝入量為0.5~1.2 g·kg-1·d-1[46](A4),在總蛋白攝入量不超過限制的前提下,可考慮用植物蛋白和乳蛋白替代動物蛋白[89-90](B4)。對不能耐受口服蛋白質(zhì)攝入的患者可考慮補充支鏈氨基酸(branched- chain amino acids,BCAA)[47,91](B5)。營養(yǎng)支持能量攝入在危重期推薦25~35 kcal·kg-1·d-1,病情穩(wěn)定后推薦35~40 kcal·kg-1·d-1[46](A4)。一旦病情改善,可給予標準飲食。建議在白天少食多餐,夜間睡前可食用適量碳水化合物[92](B5)。
(3)應用乳果糖或低聚果糖,口服或高位灌腸,可酸化腸道,促進氨的排出,調(diào)節(jié)微生態(tài),減少腸源性毒素吸收[93-95](A1)。利福昔明可作為乳果糖的輔助用藥,推薦作為二級預防用藥[96-99](A2)。
(4)視患者電解質(zhì)和酸堿平衡情況酌情選擇精氨酸、門冬氨酸-鳥氨酸等降氨藥物[100](A2)。益生菌和微生物糞便移植可能會改善顯性肝性腦病,降低血氨水平[58, 101-103](A2)。
(5)III~IV級肝性腦病患者可酌情使用BCAA或BCAA與精氨酸混合制劑以糾正氨基酸失衡[91,104](B5)。
(6)III級以上的肝性腦病患者存在誤吸風險,格拉斯哥昏迷指數(shù)(GCS)評分≤7分的患者可轉(zhuǎn)移至重癥監(jiān)護病房(ICU)接受治療[13, 105](A4)。
(7)抽搐患者可酌情使用半衰期短的藥物,例如丙泊酚、右美托咪定來鎮(zhèn)靜和鎮(zhèn)痛,不推薦預防用藥[13](B5)。
(8)人工肝支持治療可改善肝性腦病癥狀[106-108](A2)。
3.1.4.3""" 感染
(1)推薦常規(guī)進行血液和體液的病原學及感染相關檢查。
(2)除肝移植前圍手術期患者外,不推薦常規(guī)預防性使用抗感染藥物。
(3)一旦出現(xiàn)感染征象,應首先明確感染部位,根據(jù)經(jīng)驗選擇抗感染藥物,并及時根據(jù)病原學檢測及藥敏試驗結(jié)果調(diào)整用藥[109-110](A4)。
(4)應用廣譜抗感染藥物,聯(lián)合應用多個抗感染藥物,以及應用腎上腺皮質(zhì)激素類藥物等治療時,應注意防治繼發(fā)真菌感染[111](A4)。
3.1.4.4""" 低鈉血癥及頑固性腹水""""" 低鈉血癥是常見并發(fā)癥。而低鈉血癥、頑固性腹水與急性腎損傷(acute kidney injury,AKI)等并發(fā)癥相互關聯(lián)。水鈉潴留所致稀釋性低鈉血癥是其常見原因,托伐普坦作為精氨酸加壓素V2受體阻滯劑,可通過選擇性阻斷集合管主細胞V2受體,促進自由水的排泄,用于治療低鈉血癥及頑固性腹水[112](A4)。對頑固性腹水患者:(1)限制鈉鹽的攝入,每日鈉鹽攝入量不超過4~6 g[113];(2)推薦螺內(nèi)酯聯(lián)合呋塞米起始聯(lián)用,應答差者,可應用托伐普坦[114](B2);(3)特利加壓素1~2 mg/次,1次/12 h;(4)腹腔穿刺放腹水;(5)輸注白蛋白[115](A3);(6)經(jīng)頸靜脈肝內(nèi)門腔靜脈分流術(transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt,TIPS)治療。
3.1.4.5""" AKI及肝腎綜合征(hepatorenal syndrome,HRS)
對于肝衰竭患者,應積極預防AKI的發(fā)生:系統(tǒng)性抗炎治療,積極控制感染,降低膽紅素水平,糾正低血容量和維持高平均動脈壓,避免腎毒性藥物和非甾體類藥物等,需用靜脈造影劑的檢查者須權衡利弊后選擇[8, 116-119](B3)。
AKI患者的治療應綜合評估病因、嚴重程度、血流動力學及全身情況等:(1)當診斷為AKI時,應盡快調(diào)查其病因并積極控制,對于疑似細菌感染的患者,建議采集培養(yǎng)標本后,盡早給予經(jīng)驗性抗菌藥物[120](A4);(2)應立即停用利尿治療和/或β受體阻滯劑,并停用可能腎損傷藥物、血管擴張劑和非甾體消炎藥[121-122](A3);(3)根據(jù)液體丟失的原因和程度進行擴容量和補液,腎前性的患者可以使用晶體液治療,而急性消化道出血患者應給予濃縮紅細胞,以維持血紅蛋白水平為70~90 g/L[123-124](A3);(4)在停用利尿劑并控制誘因后,按照1 g·kg-1·d-1劑量(最大劑量100 g/d)連續(xù)2 d靜脈輸注20%白蛋白擴充血容量,無效者須考慮是否存在HRS[125](A5)。
HRS患者應立即接受白蛋白輸注聯(lián)合血管收縮藥物治療,改善腎臟灌注:(1)對于HRS-AKI優(yōu)先推薦特利加壓素(2 mg/24 h)聯(lián)合白蛋白(20~40 g/d),治療2 d且血肌酐下降≤25%,特利加壓素可逐步增加至6 mg/24h[126-131](A1)。若有效,療程7~14 d;若無效,停用特利加壓素。(2)去甲腎上腺素(0.5~3.0 mg/h)聯(lián)合白蛋白(10~20 g/L)在HRS-AKI患者的治療上與特利加壓素有相似的效果[131-135](A1)。在治療休克患者時,優(yōu)先推薦使用去甲腎上腺素[13](A5)。(3)米多君聯(lián)合奧曲肽,僅在無法獲取特利加壓素及去甲腎上腺素時推薦使用[124, 131, 136](B2)。(4)腎臟替代治療(RRT)的時機應根據(jù)個體情況綜合評估,對于藥物治療效果欠佳且有機會接受肝移植的患者,RRT作為腎功能惡化、電解質(zhì)紊亂或容量過載的橋接治療[137-140](A2)。(5)TIPS可用于改善HRS-NAKI患者的腎功能、控制難治性腹水,但尚不倡導在HRS-AKI患者中使用TIPS[141-142](B3)。
3.1.4.6""" 消化道出血
(1)常規(guī)推薦使用質(zhì)子泵抑制劑[143](A1)。
(2)對確診門靜脈高壓性出血的患者,應立即使用血管活性藥物降低門靜脈壓力,首選特利加壓素、生長抑素類似物或奧曲肽,持續(xù)治療3~5 d[121,144-146](A1)。急性出血期應避免使用β受體阻滯劑和血管擴張劑[124]。
(3)建議在發(fā)生出血后即開始抗菌藥物預防性治療,降低感染發(fā)生率并改善出血(A1),推薦使用頭孢曲松或喹諾酮類藥物[147-149]。
(4)盡早開始擴容補液,恢復和維持血流動力學穩(wěn)定,保證組織灌注(A5),紅細胞輸注閾值為血紅蛋白低于70 g/L,并維持70~90 g/L[150-152](A2)。
(5)在血流動力學恢復后,應盡早完善內(nèi)窺鏡治療,行內(nèi)鏡下套扎、硬化劑注射或組織黏合劑治療止血[150, 153-154](A1)。
(6)食管胃底靜脈曲張所致出血者可用三腔管壓迫止血作為內(nèi)鏡難以治療的過渡治療[121](B5)。
(7)對于Child-Pugh評級C級(lt;14分),或Child-Pugh評級B級(gt;7分)合并活動性出血的患者,可考慮早期行TIPS[155-156](B2)。對于藥物聯(lián)合內(nèi)鏡治療后仍持續(xù)出血的患者,應首選TIPS治療[121](A5)。
3.1.4.7""" 肝肺綜合征和門脈性肺動脈高壓""""" PaO2lt;80 mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133 kPa)時給予氧療,通過鼻導管或面罩給予低流量氧(2~4 L/min),對于氧氣量需要增加的患者,可以加壓面罩給氧或者氣管插管。重度門脈性肺動脈高壓(portopulmonary hypertension,PoPH)患者進行肝移植風險極高,前列環(huán)素等擴血管藥物可能改善PoPH患者的血液動力學[157]。
3.2" 非生物型人工肝支持治療
3.2.1""""" 概述"""""" 人工肝是治療肝衰竭的有效方法之一,通過一個體外的機械、理化和生物裝置,清除各種有害物質(zhì),補充必需物質(zhì),改善內(nèi)環(huán)境,暫時替代衰竭肝臟的部分功能,為肝細胞再生及肝功能恢復創(chuàng)造條件或等待機會進行肝移植。
人工肝支持系統(tǒng)分為非生物型、生物型和混合型3種。非生物型人工肝已在臨床廣泛應用并被證實有一定療效[106, 158-171](A3),生物型和混合型人工肝尚在研發(fā)階段,臨床應用仍需積極探索。本指南中主要介紹非生物型人工肝治療。
目前在臨床上常用的人工肝系統(tǒng)是李氏非生物型人工肝(Li's non-bioartificial liver,Li-NBAL)。Li-NBAL系統(tǒng)自1986年開始研究,經(jīng)歷了3個發(fā)展階段,Li-NBAL 1.0系統(tǒng)主要是以置換、吸附和濾過等單一治療模式為特征。在此基礎上持續(xù)發(fā)展,又創(chuàng)建了一系列根據(jù)不同病情進行不同組合的Li-NBAL 2.0系統(tǒng),包括血漿透析濾過(plasma diafiltration,PDF)、血漿置換聯(lián)合血液濾過(plasma exchange with hemofiltration,PEHF)、配對血漿置換吸附濾過(coupled plasma exchange filtration adsorption,CPEFA)、雙重血漿分子吸附系統(tǒng)(double plasma molecules adsorption system,DPMAS)。
為了實現(xiàn)臨床治療方案系統(tǒng)化、技術操作標準化、治療功能集成化,Li-NBAL系統(tǒng)進一步得到發(fā)展,形成了功能更全面的Li-NBAL 3.0系統(tǒng)。Li-NBAL 3.0系統(tǒng)以小劑量血漿置換為基礎,通過對置換過程中分離的血漿進行血漿吸附(陰離子樹脂、活性炭等)、血漿濾過多次循環(huán),補充少量新鮮血漿及白蛋白,同時全面清除血漿中各種毒素物質(zhì),實現(xiàn)解毒代謝、合成和平衡功能,提高了臨床治療效果,節(jié)省了血漿用量,而且使人工肝治療流程更規(guī)范、更標準、更簡便。
Li-NBAL 3.0系統(tǒng)功能介紹簡述如下。(1)解毒代謝功能:通過血漿吸附、血液/血漿濾過分別清除炎性介質(zhì)、膽紅素、血氨、芳香族氨基酸及內(nèi)毒素等多種有害物質(zhì);(2)合成功能:通過血漿分離法選擇性地從循環(huán)血液中除去病理血漿或血漿中的某些大分子致病物質(zhì),同時補充白蛋白和凝血因子等有益物質(zhì),提高機體膠體滲透壓、物質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)運載體水平,改善凝血因子;(3)平衡功能:通過血液/血漿濾過保持水、電解質(zhì)和酸堿平衡。各醫(yī)療單位可根據(jù)實際情況,結(jié)合患者病情,選擇上述功能單獨使用,也可以對各功能進行組合使用。
其他還有分子吸附再循環(huán)系統(tǒng)(molecular absorbent recycling system,MARS)、連續(xù)白蛋白凈化治療(continuous albumin purification system,CAPS)、成分血漿分離吸附(fractional plasma separation and adsorption,F(xiàn)PSA)等。推薦人工肝治療肝衰竭方案采用聯(lián)合治療方法為宜,注意操作的規(guī)范化。
3.2.2""""" 適應證
(1)各種病因引起的ALF、SALF和ACLF COSSH分級1~2級(早、中期)的患者;COSSH分級3級(晚期)的ACLF患者病情重、并發(fā)癥多,應權衡利弊,慎重進行治療,同時積極尋求肝移植機會[106, 158-166](A3)。
(2)肝衰竭患者肝移植前等待肝源、肝移植術后排異反應及移植肝無功能、ABO血型不合肝移植圍手術期脫敏治療的患者[166-169](A4)。
3.2.3""""" 相對禁忌證
(1)活動性出血或彌漫性血管內(nèi)凝血者。
(2)對治療過程中所用耗材、血制品或藥物等嚴重過敏者。
(3)血流動力學不穩(wěn)定者。
(4)心腦血管意外所致梗死非穩(wěn)定者。
(5)血管外溶血者。
雖有相對禁忌證,但病情治療需要,經(jīng)與患者或其家屬充分溝通并知情同意,仍可通過選擇相對安全的治療模式進行治療[172-173](A5)。
3.2.4""""" 并發(fā)癥"" 人工肝治療的并發(fā)癥有出血、凝血、深靜脈血栓、低血壓、繼發(fā)感染、過敏反應、失衡綜合征、高枸櫞酸鹽血癥和肝素誘導的血小板減少癥等。需要在人工肝治療前充分評估并預防并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生,在人工肝治療中和治療后嚴密觀察并發(fā)癥。隨著人工肝技術的發(fā)展,并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率逐漸下降,一旦出現(xiàn),可根據(jù)具體情況給予相應處理[172-173](A5)。
3.3" 肝移植
肝移植是治療各種原因所致的終末期肝功能衰竭的最有效方法[174],適用于經(jīng)積極內(nèi)科綜合治療和/或人工肝治療療效欠佳,不能通過上述方法好轉(zhuǎn)或恢復者。
3.3.1""""" 適應證
(1)對于ALF、SALF和CLF患者,MELD評分是評估肝移植的主要參考指標,MELD評分為15~40分是肝移植的最佳適應證[175-179]。此外,超緊急狀態(tài)患者擁有供肝分配最高優(yōu)先級[ 174,180-181](A1)。
(2)對于ACLF,經(jīng)過積極的內(nèi)科綜合治療及人工肝治療后CLIF-C分級為2~3級的患者,建議盡早行肝移植;AARC評分中,ACLF I~II級治療1周內(nèi)評分無下降患者和AARC ACLF III級患者應優(yōu)先行肝移植治療[182](B2)。
(3)對于合并肝癌的肝衰竭患者,優(yōu)先選擇符合腫瘤無大血管侵犯及肝外轉(zhuǎn)移,腫瘤累計直徑≤8 cm或腫瘤累計直徑>8 cm、術前甲胎蛋白(AFP)≤400 ng/mL且組織學分級為高/中分化[183](B2)。
(4)對于合并嚴重腎損傷或終末期腎病的肝衰竭患者可考慮肝腎聯(lián)合移植[184](B3)。
3.3.2""""" 禁忌證[179](B2)
(1)嚴重腦水腫并發(fā)腦疝。
(2)嚴重循環(huán)功能衰竭,對血管活性藥物劑量增加無反應。
(3)持續(xù)嚴重的感染,細菌或真菌引起的敗血癥、感染性休克,活動性肺結(jié)核[185-186]。
(4)合并存在肝外彌漫多發(fā)未控制的惡性腫瘤。
(5)合并存在未控制的嚴重精神疾病。
4"""" 展望
肝衰竭的預警和診療仍是國際難題,須進一步研究揭示肝衰竭的發(fā)病機制,融合應用生物技術、細胞技術和人工智能技術發(fā)現(xiàn)和篩選肝衰竭的精準宿主標志物,結(jié)合關鍵臨床參數(shù),早期識別和監(jiān)測肝衰竭的高危人群,建立高循證醫(yī)學證據(jù)等級的預警預測體系、早期診斷和分級分期標準;進一步研發(fā)智能型非生物型和生物型人工肝臟技術、肝臟3D打印技術、細胞治療技術、肝移植技術,實現(xiàn)肝衰竭高效的個性化治療,促進肝細胞再生,恢復肝臟功能;研究大數(shù)據(jù)、人工智能及物聯(lián)網(wǎng)等技術實現(xiàn)肝衰竭恢復期患者的遠程監(jiān)控和智能化管理,攻克肝衰竭高病死率的國際難題。
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