張 巖
(河南科技大學(xué) 外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院,河南 洛陽(yáng) 471000)
系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言具有概念、人際和語(yǔ)篇三大元功能。Halliday提出語(yǔ)法隱喻理論,他認(rèn)為語(yǔ)法隱喻主要見(jiàn)之于概念功能和人際功能,因此將語(yǔ)法隱喻分為 概念隱喻和人際隱喻。Martin提出了語(yǔ)篇隱喻的概念,他認(rèn)為語(yǔ)法隱喻通過(guò)展開(kāi)一個(gè)語(yǔ)篇的主位結(jié)構(gòu)和信息結(jié)構(gòu),成為組篇的工具。研究表明科技語(yǔ)篇中存在大量的語(yǔ)法隱喻,但對(duì)語(yǔ)法隱喻的研究多集中在語(yǔ)法隱喻的概念功能上,較少涉及其語(yǔ)篇功能。本文從概念隱喻和語(yǔ)篇隱喻的角度來(lái)論述科技語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)法隱喻的語(yǔ)篇功能。
語(yǔ)篇功能是語(yǔ)言成分組織成為語(yǔ)篇的功能,主要通過(guò)三種方式體現(xiàn):主位系統(tǒng)、信息系統(tǒng)和銜接。英語(yǔ)小句由主位和述位構(gòu)成。在主位系統(tǒng)中,主位先于述位出現(xiàn),主位是話語(yǔ)的出發(fā)點(diǎn),圍繞主位的述位是信息的剩余部分。信息系統(tǒng)是已知信息與新信息相互作用構(gòu)成信息單位的結(jié)構(gòu),每個(gè)信息單位由已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)過(guò)的或由語(yǔ)境可確定的成分即已知信息和言語(yǔ)活動(dòng)中未出現(xiàn)或由語(yǔ)境難以確定的成分即新信息構(gòu)成?!耙阎畔?新信息”是常見(jiàn)的信息單位結(jié)構(gòu)。信息系統(tǒng)是一種語(yǔ)義結(jié)構(gòu)形式,通過(guò)運(yùn)用照應(yīng)、省略、替代、連接等語(yǔ)法銜接和詞匯銜接等手段,把語(yǔ)篇中的語(yǔ)言成分聯(lián)成語(yǔ)義關(guān)系,因此銜接是一個(gè)語(yǔ)義概念。
在英語(yǔ)主位結(jié)構(gòu)中主位總在最前面,一般來(lái)說(shuō),已知信息先于新信息出現(xiàn),信息中心位于信息單位的最后,但有時(shí)說(shuō)話人為強(qiáng)調(diào)某個(gè)成分可把新信息作為講話的起點(diǎn),因此新信息也可出現(xiàn)在已知信息前面。主位述位的順序和已知信息和新信息的順序之間并不存在絕對(duì)的一致性,它們完全是出于不同的角度。主位系統(tǒng)是從信息的角度基于說(shuō)話人或作者的,而信息系統(tǒng)是從注意焦點(diǎn)的角度基于說(shuō)話人或作者賦予給聽(tīng)話人或讀者的角色的,兩個(gè)系統(tǒng)共同作用才產(chǎn)生銜接的連貫的語(yǔ)篇。
(一)概念語(yǔ)法隱喻
Bahktin(1981)認(rèn)為所有的語(yǔ)篇都有互文性(intertextuality),即所有的語(yǔ)篇都在不同程度上包容其他實(shí)際的或可能的語(yǔ)篇,任何說(shuō)話者都是某種程度上的回應(yīng)者,他永遠(yuǎn)不可能是第一個(gè)說(shuō)話的人,作者在構(gòu)筑語(yǔ)篇時(shí)預(yù)設(shè)他自己和其他人以前說(shuō)過(guò)的言語(yǔ)的存在,因而在作者與前人之間形成一種內(nèi)在的對(duì)話。同時(shí)語(yǔ)篇也預(yù)設(shè)理想的讀者的存在,作者希望真正的讀者通過(guò)理想的讀者理解語(yǔ)篇。
互文性涉及引用作者或他人曾經(jīng)寫(xiě)過(guò)關(guān)于某個(gè)領(lǐng)域的論文和著作。這里我們關(guān)注的主要限于文章本身即篇際互文性。篇際互文性指的是語(yǔ)篇的后面部分指涉前面已經(jīng)論述過(guò)的某些內(nèi)容,主要通過(guò)重復(fù)和同義完成這一過(guò)程。這里所說(shuō)的重復(fù)和同義是指聯(lián)系前后某些內(nèi)容的詞匯銜接。語(yǔ)法隱喻構(gòu)成一種通過(guò)名詞化實(shí)現(xiàn)重復(fù)和同義關(guān)系的特殊的詞匯銜接。
科技語(yǔ)篇主要依靠連貫的論點(diǎn)以及精確的邏輯的推論和演繹來(lái)展開(kāi)語(yǔ)篇。語(yǔ)法隱喻使得觀察和實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)癁橹匦伦R(shí)解的經(jīng)驗(yàn),通過(guò)語(yǔ)法表達(dá)出來(lái),從而作為進(jìn)一步發(fā)展論點(diǎn)、進(jìn)行推論的出發(fā)點(diǎn)。主位是已知論點(diǎn)的集合,打包論點(diǎn)讓其成為一個(gè)小句的主位的唯一途徑就是把它變?yōu)槊~詞組。名詞通常指的是“事物”。通過(guò)名詞化,過(guò)程、性質(zhì)可被事物化、被概述為“事物”,從而作為下一小句的出發(fā)點(diǎn)、另一過(guò)程的參加者,而且名詞化由于略去了執(zhí)行者而增加了客觀性,這與科學(xué)的意識(shí)形態(tài)相一致。通常我們以小句的形式被告知某物,由于進(jìn)一步推論的需要,過(guò)程或性質(zhì)被隱喻為名詞。Thompson認(rèn)為名詞化的一個(gè)重要功能就在于其概述力,因此名詞化具有推論的功能。例如:
In the case-control study, SIDS was significantly associated with sleeping in the prone position, as compared with other positions… The strength of this association was increased among infants who slept on natural-fiber mattresses……
在該例中,述位部分中的新信息“was significantly associated……”被打包為名詞詞組“the strength of this association”,作為下一小句的主位。第二個(gè)小句中的主位變成了推論中出發(fā)點(diǎn)的已知信息。通過(guò)語(yǔ)法隱喻而不是通過(guò)一個(gè)字一個(gè)字的重復(fù)實(shí)現(xiàn)了語(yǔ)篇的連貫和銜接。
Guillén Galve給出一個(gè)某個(gè)語(yǔ)篇中包括三種表達(dá)的例子來(lái)闡釋通過(guò)語(yǔ)法隱喻實(shí)現(xiàn)的篇際互文性。
1、The results of these experiments suggest that when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidlyif they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle.
2、The results of all three experiments suggested that,should a nerve fascicle become accidentally impaledduring regional anaesthesia, the lesions induced by short bevelled needles are more severe, more frequent and take longerto repair than those induced by long bevelled needles.
3、In conclusion, this study provides evidence from several different experiments which show that, should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater when SB, as opposed to LB, needles were used.
在第一種表達(dá)中從以物質(zhì)過(guò)程實(shí)現(xiàn)的從屬句得知“when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidly if they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle”,這是一致式的表達(dá)。第二種表達(dá)是類(lèi)似于第一種的識(shí)解。第三種表達(dá)是隱喻式的表達(dá),再現(xiàn)了前面已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)的語(yǔ)篇,實(shí)現(xiàn)了互文性。名詞詞組“accidental nerve fascicle penetration”和名詞詞組“the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury”代替第一種和第二種表達(dá)中出現(xiàn)的動(dòng)詞“impale”,形容詞“severe”,副詞“accidentally”、“frequently” 和 “rapidly” 來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇的連貫和銜接。與第一種和第二種表達(dá)相比,條件句“should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater”中的主句在結(jié)構(gòu)上簡(jiǎn)單些。
(二)語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)法隱喻
Martin提出的語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)法隱喻的概念無(wú)疑與語(yǔ)篇功能相關(guān)。
首先,為了支持命題而陳列一些論據(jù),一些名詞作為元信息用來(lái)組織語(yǔ)篇,在現(xiàn)實(shí)中它們并沒(méi)有確切的相應(yīng)的實(shí)體。例如:
Human blood serves the body in three important ways.First, blood carries substances needed to maintain and repair the body tissues. In this way, blood serves as a provider.Second, blood also serves as a disposer, since it carries wastes and gases away from the tissues of the body. In addition, blood acts as a defender. The white corpuscles in the blood-stream constantly guard against and try to destroy bacteria and other agents that threaten the body’s welfare.
名詞“ways”不指代現(xiàn)實(shí)中的任何實(shí)體。從語(yǔ)篇來(lái)看,它指的是用來(lái)支持小句中所表達(dá)的命題“human blood serves the body”的并列的一些論據(jù)。
第二,指稱(chēng)詞如“this”、“that”、“these”、“those”和“it”并不指代任何實(shí)際的物或人,而是表示對(duì)事實(shí)、動(dòng)作和語(yǔ)篇的確實(shí)性表達(dá)。例如:
It will be long time before any landing on Mars can be attempted. This will long be possible when scientists have learned a lot more about the atmosphere that surrounds the planet.
代詞“this”預(yù)設(shè)了一種宏觀現(xiàn)象——“l(fā)anding on Mars”這一事實(shí)。
第三,語(yǔ)篇中的內(nèi)在連接詞作為銜接鏈也是一種語(yǔ)法隱喻。例如:
To begin with one must consider the naming or designation of real numbers as these are the assumed connection between theory and experiment. That is, in quantum mechanics at least, all predictions of theory are real numbers.
非限定性動(dòng)詞詞組“to beging with”并不是指開(kāi)始做某事這一實(shí)際的動(dòng)作。
另外,隱喻性主位和隱喻性信息也能實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇功能。如果下一小句的主位用來(lái)概述前一小句的述位、前一整句、前幾個(gè)句子、甚至一個(gè)段落,那么該主位就是隱喻性的主位,見(jiàn)下面一例。
When a solution any substance is separated from a solute-free solvent by a membrane that is freely permeable to solvent molecules, but not to molecules of the solute, the solvent tends to be drawn through the membrane into the solution, thus diluting it. Movement of the solvent across the membrane can be prevented by applying a certain hydrostatic pressure to the solution.
“Movement of the solvent across the membrane”是對(duì)前一小句信息的概括。它是該小句的出發(fā)點(diǎn),因此它是主位,更確切地說(shuō)是連接語(yǔ)篇不同部分的隱喻性主位。
隱喻性信息是語(yǔ)義凝集。例如:
Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni.
該小句中新信息的一致式是投射小句β“the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni”,它具有自己的新信息和已知信息。
α Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed that
β dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni is present.
通過(guò)分析科技語(yǔ)篇中的概念語(yǔ)法隱喻和語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)法隱喻,可以發(fā)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)法隱喻的語(yǔ)篇功能在于通過(guò)主位系統(tǒng)和信息系統(tǒng)以及隱喻地實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇的方式來(lái)建構(gòu)具有邏輯性的銜接的連貫的語(yǔ)篇。
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