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      意合關(guān)系和形合關(guān)系:從句法修辭到語篇修辭的演變

      2011-11-18 01:23:10戴建東高恩光
      關(guān)鍵詞:修辭格連接詞省略

      戴建東,高恩光

      (太原師范學院 外語系, 山西 太原 030012)

      意合關(guān)系和形合關(guān)系:從句法修辭到語篇修辭的演變

      戴建東,高恩光

      (太原師范學院 外語系, 山西 太原 030012)

      意合關(guān)系(parataxis)和形合關(guān)系(hypotaxis)是兩個傳統(tǒng)的語法分析用語?,F(xiàn)在,這兩個術(shù)語廣泛用于文學評論、語言學分析,尤其是文體學分析。但是,它們的含義一直在發(fā)展,并成為與之相關(guān)的修辭格無連接結(jié)構(gòu)(asyndeton)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)(polysyndeton)的語言學基礎(chǔ)。

      意合關(guān)系;形合關(guān)系;無連接結(jié)構(gòu);多連接結(jié)構(gòu)

      意合關(guān)系(parataxis)和形合關(guān)系(hypotaxis)是兩個語法術(shù)語。前者為并列成分結(jié)構(gòu),后者為從屬成分結(jié)構(gòu)。它們構(gòu)成了無連接結(jié)構(gòu)(asyndeton)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu) (polysyndeton)的語言學基礎(chǔ)。

      一、意合關(guān)系和形合關(guān)系概念的形成和發(fā)展

      意合關(guān)系(parataxis)來自于希臘詞 paratassein,意為“并列放置”;形合關(guān)系(hypotaxis)來自另一個希臘詞hypotassein,意思是“安排”。過去的三十多年見證了語言研究者和學習者對這兩個概念由句法到語篇在理解上的發(fā)展過程。

      在20世紀70年代,這兩個概念的定義局限在句法上。意合是指“不使用并列或從屬連接詞語把從句或短語并排放置在一起”。[1][2]例如下面兩個英語句子:

      (1)He bought tea,coffee,eggs,milk.

      (2)The door was open;he walked in.

      形合是指“通過連接詞語使句子成分從屬”。[1][2]下面兩個句子說明了這種現(xiàn)象:

      (3)He dictated the letter and she wrote it.

      (2a)He walked in because the door was open.

      到了20世紀80年代,這兩個概念超越了句法的界限,開始用于對語篇中句子與句子之間關(guān)系的分析。意合關(guān)系被認為是指“僅僅通過并置、標點或語調(diào),而不使用連接詞連接的結(jié)構(gòu)”[3][4]:

      (1a)He bought tea,coffee,eggs and milk.

      (4)I think it is so.

      而形合關(guān)系則被認為是“通過使用連接詞使其構(gòu)成成分This is his first and best novel.[7](在這個句子中,形容詞“first”和“best”處于平等位置。)

      (1b)He bought tea and coffee and eggs and milk.

      (2c)The door was open and he walked in.

      (2d)The door was open.And he walked in.

      通過樹型圖,意合關(guān)系可以更加明確地表述出來(如圖1)。

      形合關(guān)系被描述為“子句的從屬句法關(guān)系”,從形式上要使用從屬連接詞because,although等和關(guān)系代詞who,which等進行連接。[5]Lanham[6]認為形合關(guān)系讓人們知道事物是有等級和層次的,人們從中可以看出:“什么”出自“什么”;短語、從句、完整的句子之間如何存在不等同的關(guān)系,即A產(chǎn)生B,B來自A;因此,通過原因、時間,或別的關(guān)系,一個子句從相連接的從屬結(jié)構(gòu)”[3][4]:

      (5)The man laughed when the dog barked.

      胡壯麟和劉潤清[4]認為這兩種結(jié)構(gòu)也可以用于句子與句子之間句法關(guān)系的研究:

      (2b)The door was open.He walked in.(意合)

      (3a)He dictated the letter.She wrote it.(意合)

      (6)You can phone the doctor if you like.However,I very much doubt whether he is in.(行合)

      從20世紀90年代中期至今,意合關(guān)系和形合關(guān)系的概念又發(fā)生了一些變化。意合關(guān)系被描述為“通過對等關(guān)系使句法連接”,在英語中表現(xiàn)為使用并列連接詞and,or等詞,或是通過相應的語調(diào)使結(jié)構(gòu)并置。[5]Lanham[6]認為意合關(guān)系必須平等地對待短語、從句和句子,并置它們,讓讀者去體會它們的關(guān)系。下面幾個例句可以說明這種關(guān)系:

      (7)屬于另一個子句。除了例句 (2a)(5)(6)(7)之外,下面的例子也能說明這種關(guān)系:

      (8)This is his first successful novel.[7](在這個句子中,兩個形容詞“first”和“successful”處于同一個層次,但不屬于同一等級。)

      圖1

      (9)I feel that I owe some apology to your lordships for standing in the way of any noble lords who wish to address you:but after much deliberation,and after consulting with several of my noble friends on both sides of the House,it did appear to us,as I am sure it will to your lordships,desirable,on many grounds,that the debate should be brought to a close this night;and I thought I could not better contribute to that end than by taking the present opportunity of addressing you.

      例(9)是一個含有幾個從屬結(jié)構(gòu)的復雜句子。這個句子可以分出幾個層次:第一個層次是陳述;第二個層次為詳盡闡述;第三個層次是限定。[6]下面的結(jié)構(gòu)圖可以展示這種層次關(guān)系:

      ?

      (2e)The door was open.So he walked in.

      與例(2)(2c)(2b)(2d)同理,(2a)和 (2e)的關(guān)系可以通過樹型圖表示出來:

      從以上討論可以得出:意合關(guān)系是指通過使用相應的語調(diào)或標點,或通過使用并列連接詞and/or,使一個句子的內(nèi)部成分,或不同的句子并置,形成一種平等關(guān)系。形合關(guān)系是指通過使用because,although等從屬連接詞和who,which等關(guān)系代詞,使一個句子的內(nèi)部成分或一個語篇中的不同句子,形成一種隸屬的或不平等的關(guān)系。

      二、兩種句法關(guān)系作為修辭格的使用

      英語中有兩個與連接詞相關(guān)的句法修辭格:無連接結(jié)構(gòu)(asyndeton)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)(polysyndeton)。前者來自希臘詞語asyndetos,意思是“沒有連接”[2],是“一種省略連接詞的修辭格”[8],“是省略連接詞、冠詞,甚至代詞的方法”[9]。這種修辭格顯然與意合關(guān)系有密切關(guān)系,如在例(1)中,在eggs和milk之間的連接詞and被省略掉了。再讀下面的例子,其中例(10)省略了冠詞,而例(11)省略了代詞。

      (10) Dogs,undistinguishable in mire.Horses,scarcely better—— splashed to their very blinkers.Foot passencers,jostling one anogther’s unbrellas,in a general infection of illtemper,and losing their foothold at street corners.(Charles Dickens:Bleak House)

      (11)…h(huán)e(the ant)fetches up against a pebble,and instead of going around it,he climbs over it backward dragging his booty after him,tumbles down on the other side,jumps up in a passion,kicks the dusk off hi clothes,moistens his hands,grabs his property viciously,yanks it this way,then that,shoves it ahead of him a moment,gets madder and madder,then presently hoists it into the air and goes tearing away in an entirely new direction; comes to a weed;….(Mark Twain:A Tramp Abroad)

      無連接結(jié)構(gòu)是“文體標志”。[7]作為一種修辭格,它更多地是指“在一系列并列結(jié)構(gòu)中故意省略并列連接詞“and”的結(jié)構(gòu)。[10]

      多連接結(jié)構(gòu)和無連接結(jié)構(gòu)的含義正好相反。多連接結(jié)構(gòu)(polysyndeton)同樣是來自希臘語,它的意思是“使用多個連接”。這種修辭手段是指“重復使用連接詞連接連續(xù)出現(xiàn)的單詞、[短語]、從句,或句子”。[2][10][11][12]多連接結(jié)構(gòu)以這樣的模式出現(xiàn):first A(happened)and then B and then C,and so on.[6]除了使用連接詞and之外,其他連接詞如or,nor,but,also等也會出現(xiàn)在多連接結(jié)構(gòu)中。在多連接結(jié)構(gòu)中會有基礎(chǔ)句法中的意合關(guān)系,但更多的是會出現(xiàn)形合關(guān)系。

      與其他修辭格一樣,無連接結(jié)構(gòu)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)在語篇中經(jīng)常用來渲染氣氛或增加色彩。不同之處在于英語中很多修辭格,如明喻、隱喻、擬人、反語是借助詞匯手段來表達語義,而無連接結(jié)構(gòu)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)是借助句法手段在文中表達特殊含義,如愷撒的名句:

      (12)Veni,vidi,vici.(I came,I saw,I conquered.)

      從句法角度,這是個意合關(guān)系的句子,但是連接詞and的省略很好地表達了“速度和簡潔”[9],意義直截了當,成為了一種修辭方法,生動地表達出愷撒軍事征服的迅速。很多無連接結(jié)構(gòu)在語篇中都可以收到直接、清楚、有力、明快的效果。再讀下面的兩個例句:

      (13)On your mark,get set,go!(各就個位,預備,跑!)

      (14)Go get him.(去把他叫來。)

      無連接結(jié)構(gòu)的使用還可以使一系列有密切關(guān)系的事實、事件、想法、情感等產(chǎn)生聯(lián)系,[13]渲染氣氛,給讀者留下深刻印象,如:

      (15)Twenty-two years old,weak,hot,frightened,not daring to acknowledge the fact that he didn’t know who or what he was…with no past,no language,not tribe,no source,no address book,no comb,no pencil,no clock,no pocket handkerchief,no rug,no bed,no can opener,no faded postcard,no soup,no key,no tobacco pouch,no soiled underwear and nothing,nothong,nothing to do…h(huán)e was sure of one thing only:the unchecked monstrosity of his hands.(Toni Morrison:Sula)

      這里,托尼·莫里森運用兩串無連接結(jié)構(gòu)描繪了一個22歲的青年男子:先寫其性格,再寫其身世和特征,把一個無知青年的樣子寫得活靈活現(xiàn):除了一雙不受約束的怪手,別的一無所有。

      無連接結(jié)構(gòu)的使用有時會讓人覺得突兀,因為一個陳述與另一個陳述之間的關(guān)系不是很明確。但是,恰恰是這種用法受到很多作家青睞。他們用這種結(jié)構(gòu)影射世界的雜亂無章和毫無意義。例如英國小說家狄更斯就是這方面的高手。他在《雙城記》的開篇第一段就寫道:

      (16)It was the best of times,it was the worset of times,it was the age of wisdom,it was the age of foolishness,it was the epoch of belief,it was the epoch of incredulity,it was the season of Light,it was the season of Darkness,it was the spring of hope,it was the winter of despair,we had everything before us,we had nothing before us,we were all going direct to Heaven,we were all going direct the otherway.

      這一段話里一連用了14個無連接結(jié)構(gòu)分句,與7個對偶辭格一起使用,把當時紛繁復雜、矛盾重重的社會表現(xiàn)得淋漓盡致,給讀者提供了有力的背景資料,使人們一開卷就受到強烈的震撼,必然有將小說讀下去的沖動。

      形合關(guān)系的句子在語篇中構(gòu)成連接結(jié)構(gòu)或多連接結(jié)構(gòu),經(jīng)常用于表達復雜的概念,在形式上顯得莊重嚴肅。例如多連接結(jié)構(gòu)在《圣經(jīng)》中的應用:

      (17)In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.The earth was without form and void,and darkness was upon the face of the deep;and the spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.

      And God said,“Let there be light”;and there was light.And God saw that the light was good;and God separated the light from the darkness.God called the light Day,and the darkness he called night.And there was evening and there was morning,one day.(The Bible:Genesis)

      《圣經(jīng)》中多連接結(jié)構(gòu)無處不在,使人聯(lián)想起虔誠基督徒的祈禱和吟頌。這種效果是由于在一連串的and前出現(xiàn)輕微的停頓而產(chǎn)生的。緩慢、規(guī)律的節(jié)奏與基督徒的祈禱和吟頌很相像,當大聲朗讀這種段落時,讀者能感覺到某個詞、短語或是從句受到了強調(diào)。

      此外,在多連接結(jié)構(gòu)中,不斷重復的and結(jié)合上下文和環(huán)境可以表達某種情緒和氣氛:

      (18)I soon found out what else when I encountered the four March sisters of Little Women,a sentimental,old-fashioned book about girls growing up in Civil War times in New England.About spoiled,vain,pretty Amy.And sickly,saintly Beth.And womanly,decent Meg.And about—— most important of all—— gawky,bookworm Jo…Jo got stains on her dress and laughed when she shoudn’t and lost her temper and didn’t display tact or patience or restraint.Jo brought a touch of irreverence to the cultural restraints of the world she lived in.And yet her instincts were good and her heart was pure and her headstrong ways led always to virtue.And furthermore Jo—— as I yearned to be—— was a writer.(Judith Viorst:“How Books helpeed Shape My Life”)

      在這段文字中,作者利用多連接結(jié)構(gòu)把作品中人物的想法用and和or連接起來,試圖制造出一種青少年思維的方式:一個女學生的腔調(diào)躍然紙上。

      語篇中,無連接結(jié)構(gòu)、連接結(jié)構(gòu)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)經(jīng)常在一起使用。它們的結(jié)合能產(chǎn)生極端現(xiàn)象,要么表達非凡的神圣,要么表達極端的庸俗。例如:

      (19)And Moses said unto the Lord,O my Lord,I am not eloquent,neither here to fore,nor since thou hast spoken unto thy servant;but I am slow of speech,and of a slow tongue.And the Lord said unto him,who hath made man’s mouth?Or who maketh the dumb,or deaf,or the seeing,or the blind?Have not I the Lord?Now therefore go,and I will be with thy mouth,and teach thee with thou shalt say.And he said,O my Lord,send,I pray thee,by the hand of him who thou will send.And the anger of the Lord was kindled against Moses,and he said,Is not Aaron the Levite thy brother?I know that he can speak well.And also,behold,he cometh forth to meet thee:and when he sees thee,he will be glad in his heart.And thou shalt speak unto him,and put words in his mouth:and I will be with thy mouth,and with his mouth,and will teach you what ye shall do.And she shall be thy spokesman unto the people:and he shall be,even he shall be to thee instead of a mouth,and thou shalt be to him instead of God.And thou shalt take this rod in thine hand,wherewith thou shalt do signs.(The Bible:Exodus 4:10-17)

      這個段落出自權(quán)威版《圣經(jīng)》,句子間的每一個部分都以and開始。然而,在修訂后的標準版《圣經(jīng)》中,同一個段落中同一個句子的開始卻沒有and。但是兩個版本中句子與句子之間都用多連接結(jié)構(gòu),而且都用了古詞或詩歌中的詞語,如“unto”,“thou hast”,“hath”,“maketh”,“thee”,“thou shalt”,“cometh”,“ye”,等等。在這個段落中典雅的古詞風格與由無連接和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)成的結(jié)構(gòu)與普通文體相結(jié)合,暗示著基督教《圣經(jīng)》中宗教儀式的重述是用“完美的意合來表達的”[6]。這樣的風格表示:上帝是神圣的,摩西和其他眾人是世俗的。

      三、結(jié)論

      在句法中,意合關(guān)系和形合關(guān)系是兩種重要的句法關(guān)系,它們的定義和概念一直在變化和發(fā)展,逐漸從單一的句法關(guān)系演變成重要的修辭格,恰當?shù)氖褂媚苁咕渥釉诮Y(jié)構(gòu)和功能上產(chǎn)生變化。而在語篇中,無連接結(jié)構(gòu)和多連接結(jié)構(gòu)是作為修辭格被使用的,有意識地使用可以使文體生動,產(chǎn)生特殊的效果和意義。

      [1] Hartmann,R.R.K.&F.C.Stork.Dictionary of Language and Linguistics[K].London:Applied Science Publishers Ltd.,1972.

      [2] Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary[K].Springfield,Massachusetts U.S.A:G&C.Merriam Company,1977.

      [3] Crystal,David.A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics[K].New York&London:Basil Blackwell in association with André Deutsch,1985.

      [4] 胡壯麟,劉潤清.語言學教程[M].北京:北京大學出版社,1988.

      [5] Bussmamn,Hadumod.(Translated and Edited by Gregory P.Trauth&Kerstin Kazzazi)Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics[K].London:Tailor&Francis Limited&Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1996/2000.

      [6] Lanham,Richard A.Analyzing Prose[M].Beijing:Peking University Press,2004.

      [7] Quirk,Randolph,et al.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M].London&New York:Longman Group Limited,1985.

      [8] Funk,Charles Earle,Litt.D.Funk&Wagnalls New Practical Standard Dictionaty of the English Language[K].New York and London:Funk and Wagnalls Company,1962.

      [9] Cudden,J.A.A Dictionary of Literary Terms[K].London:André Deutsch Limited,1979.

      [10]馮翠華.英語修辭大全(修訂版)[M].北京:外語教學與研究出版社,2005.

      [11]Baldick,Chris.Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms[K].Oxford&New York:Oxford University Press,1996.

      [12]徐鵬.英語辭格[M].北京:商務(wù)印書館,2000.

      [13]馮翠華.英語修辭大全(修訂版)[M].北京:外語教學與研究出版社,1985.

      【責任編輯 張 琴】

      Parataxis,Hypotaxis:Development from Syntactic Ehetoric to Discoursal Rhetoritc

      DAI Jian-dong,GAO En-guang
      (Foreign Languages Department,Taiyuan Normal University,Taiyuan 030012,China)

      Parataxis and hypotaxis are two terms used in traditional grammatical analysis.They are now widely applied to literary criticism and linguistic analysis,especially to stylistic analysis.However,the views on their implications have been developing,and becoming the basic linguistic foundation for the two figures of speech: asyndeton and polysyndeton.

      parataxis;hypotaxis;asyndeton;polysyndeton

      2010-03-29

      戴建東(1955-),男,江蘇常州人,太原師范學院外語系教授。

      高恩光(1944-),男,山西隰縣人,太原師范學院外語系教授。

      1672-2035(2011)02-0125-04

      H04

      A

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