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      Wnt信號通路途徑調(diào)控細(xì)胞凋亡在腫瘤治療中的作用

      2014-09-12 22:08:39賈良杰
      中國當(dāng)代醫(yī)藥 2014年18期
      關(guān)鍵詞:細(xì)胞凋亡

      賈良杰

      [摘要] Wnt信號通路在生物體內(nèi)參與調(diào)節(jié)了很多生命過程,其中包括各個組織的形成及器官的產(chǎn)生、免疫作用的發(fā)生、機(jī)體應(yīng)激性的產(chǎn)生、細(xì)胞癌變和細(xì)胞凋亡與抗凋亡的過程等重要生命活動。越來越多的研究揭示了Wnt信號通路在細(xì)胞凋亡過程中的巨大作用,當(dāng)然,Wnt信號通路通過很多已知的途徑進(jìn)行細(xì)胞凋亡過程的調(diào)節(jié),其中包括通過調(diào)整細(xì)胞所處的外環(huán)境從而刺激細(xì)胞凋亡過程的加速或減緩等過程。本文將在Wnt細(xì)胞信號通路調(diào)控細(xì)胞凋亡從影響腫瘤細(xì)胞生長及生物體發(fā)育上對近期發(fā)表的研究成果作簡要綜述,并對Wnt信號通路中存在的關(guān)鍵基因、轉(zhuǎn)錄蛋白質(zhì)做重點(diǎn)介紹并對其在細(xì)胞凋亡過程中所起的重要作用加以詳細(xì)闡述。

      [關(guān)鍵詞] Wnt信號通路;細(xì)胞凋亡;腫瘤治療

      [中圖分類號] R458[文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼] A[文章編號] 1674-4721(2014)06(c)-0194-03

      The effect of apoptosis transferred by Wnt signaling transduction pathway in the cancer therapy

      JIA Liang-jie

      College of Life Science,Shannxi Normal University,Xi′an710119,China

      [Abstract] Wnt signaling transduction pathway plays an important role in many kinds of life activities,such as the formation of various organizations and organs,immunity,reflex activity,canceration of the normal cell and anti-apoptotic process.The association between the Wnt signaling pathway and apoptosis has become more firmly established in the recent scientific literature.The activity of Wnt signaling according to specific cellular environment stimuli can regulate apoptosis.In this review,we will summarize the recent researches about the apoptosis transferred by Wnt signaling transduction pathway which interfere the activity of cancer cell and the development of organism,and we will also draw attention to genes and proteins of the Wnt signaling pathway involved in apoptosis and describe some of their functional effects.

      [Key words] Wnt signaling pathway;Apoptosis;Cancer therapy

      各項(xiàng)研究充分表明,如果細(xì)胞凋亡發(fā)生失調(diào),那么機(jī)體會出現(xiàn)多種疾病,當(dāng)細(xì)胞凋亡不能正常進(jìn)行時(shí),會發(fā)生癌癥;當(dāng)細(xì)胞凋亡失調(diào),特別是神經(jīng)組織或肌肉組織發(fā)生病變時(shí),會發(fā)生神經(jīng)或肌肉細(xì)胞的功能喪失,導(dǎo)致功能性失常和障礙[1]。大量研究表明,Wnt信號通路在生物體的發(fā)育過程中扮演了重要的角色,在正常體細(xì)胞黏附、存活及凋亡調(diào)節(jié)和幼體胚胎細(xì)胞的分裂及分化的生理生化過程中有重要作用[2],特別是在幼體中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)育過程中發(fā)生的突觸重排過程,需要神經(jīng)元中Wnt信號通路中的一些關(guān)鍵性成員參與其中[3]。細(xì)胞凋亡基因與Wnt信號途徑中共有的基因在整個胚胎發(fā)育時(shí)期被連續(xù)、協(xié)調(diào)的方式激活。Wnt信號通路在心血管系統(tǒng)的發(fā)育過程中起不可或缺的作用[4],還在成骨細(xì)胞的發(fā)育過程中軟骨細(xì)胞凋亡方面發(fā)揮了重要作用[5]。

      1 Wnt信號通路簡介

      Wnt信號途徑的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)系統(tǒng)是人體中比較重要的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路之一,包括信號啟動、分子傳遞、靶基因轉(zhuǎn)錄活化等幾個主要環(huán)節(jié)。在脊椎動物細(xì)胞中,Wnt信號途徑被其中的關(guān)鍵性蛋白(Wnt蛋白)所命名。在多種生物體內(nèi),Wnt信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)分為三條不同途徑發(fā)揮作用:經(jīng)典Wnt信號途徑(canonical Wnt signal pathway)、細(xì)胞極性途徑和Wnt/Ca2+相關(guān)的非經(jīng)典Wnt信號途徑(noncanonical Wnt signal pathway)。通過這幾種途徑,Wnt家族蛋白參與多種生理生化過程,接收胞外信號分子,從而調(diào)控胚胎發(fā)育及細(xì)胞生長、分化和凋亡等。Wnt信號通路的具體作用方式見圖1。

      1.1 經(jīng)典的Wnt信號通路

      經(jīng)典Wnt信號通路的作用機(jī)制已基本闡明,主要過程由細(xì)胞自分泌或旁分泌的Wnt蛋白與細(xì)胞表面受體卷曲蛋白(Frizzled,F(xiàn)rz)結(jié)合,F(xiàn)rz蛋白相當(dāng)于胞內(nèi)與胞外信號通路的橋梁從而使β-catenin在細(xì)胞質(zhì)中積累,并在低密度脂蛋白受體相關(guān)蛋白5和6(LDL-receptor-related protein 5/6,LRP5/6)的協(xié)同下[7],一起活化Dishevelled(DSH)蛋白,觸發(fā)細(xì)胞內(nèi)的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo),進(jìn)而抑制了由糖原合成酶激酶3β(GSK-3β)、結(jié)腸癌抑制因子[8](APC)和軸蛋白(axin)等構(gòu)成的蛋白降解復(fù)合物,該復(fù)合物可通過磷酸化β-catenin(Ser45、Ser33、Ser37和Thr41)使之降解,因此當(dāng)復(fù)合物不能形成或被解聚時(shí),β-catenin則不會被降解,得以在細(xì)胞質(zhì)內(nèi)聚集增多,進(jìn)而向細(xì)胞核內(nèi)轉(zhuǎn)移,與轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的主要信號分子T細(xì)胞因子/淋巴增強(qiáng)因子復(fù)合物(TCF/LEF)結(jié)合[5],最終激活與細(xì)胞生存、增殖和分化相關(guān)的下游靶基因的表達(dá)。Wnt信號的起始為Wnt配體與靶細(xì)胞上的特異性受體結(jié)合,轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)特異的信號途徑,導(dǎo)致靶細(xì)胞發(fā)生一系列生理反應(yīng)。

      1.2 細(xì)胞極性途徑(planar cell polarity pathway,Wnt/JNK通路)

      Wnt/JNK通路與經(jīng)典的Wnt信號通路在散亂蛋白激活之前的過程相同,但在激活后,主要是通過DSH激活Jun-N末端激酶(JNK),調(diào)節(jié)轉(zhuǎn)錄因子c-Jun、ATF2、P53、DPC4、Elk1等的活性而起作用。其中3個保守區(qū)域(DIX、PDZ、DEP)中的DEP在JNK激活作用下建立平面細(xì)胞極性,從而發(fā)揮作用。Wnt7a與Frz受體結(jié)合也發(fā)生在這一通路的激活過程中,從而調(diào)控Dsh、VanGogh、prickle、Strabismu、diego和flamingo等下游效應(yīng)基因的表達(dá),這些基因主要參與細(xì)胞極性的建立和細(xì)胞骨架重排使細(xì)胞骨架在胞內(nèi)不對稱分布并在上皮細(xì)胞的協(xié)同極化過程中發(fā)揮作用。

      1.3 Wnt/Ca2+相關(guān)的非經(jīng)典信號途徑(Wnt/Ca2+ noncanonical Wnt signal pathway)

      endprint

      非經(jīng)典的Wnt/Ca2+信號途徑的激活需要Wnt家族中的Wnt4、Wnt5a、Wnt11蛋白參與。當(dāng)Wnt蛋白與相應(yīng)的Fz受體結(jié)合后,磷脂酰肌醇特異性磷脂酶C(PI-PLC)被特定的G蛋白激活,之后PI-PLC水解PIP2(phosphatidylinositol 4,5-diphosphate)生成DAG(diacylglycerol)和IP3(inositol triphosphate),兩者都能作為第二信使參與下游的級聯(lián)反應(yīng)。DAG在細(xì)胞膜上協(xié)同Ca2+和磷脂酰絲氨酸激活蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC),PKC通過激活細(xì)胞質(zhì)中的靶酶,參與生化反應(yīng),在癌癥中發(fā)揮重要作用[9-10]。IP3是Ca2+通道激活劑,既可以促使細(xì)胞膜上的Ca2+通道開放,又可以促進(jìn)內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)中的Ca2+釋放到細(xì)胞質(zhì)中[11],導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞質(zhì)中Ca2+濃度增加,當(dāng)增加到一定濃度時(shí),其與鈣調(diào)蛋白(calmodulin,CaM)結(jié)合成Ca2+/CaM復(fù)合物,激活下游效應(yīng)蛋白,引起廣泛的生物學(xué)效應(yīng)[12]。

      除這些已被發(fā)現(xiàn)的信號通路外,近年來發(fā)現(xiàn)的Wnt/Ror2通路是研究的一個熱點(diǎn),主要為Wnt5a與細(xì)胞上Ror2、Frz受體分子結(jié)合后,可激活RhoA、Rac、ROCK和JNK等信號分子,在調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞的極性和遷移中發(fā)揮作用[13-14]。

      2 Wnt信號傳導(dǎo)通路和細(xì)胞凋亡

      Wnt信號通路存在廣泛,包括果蠅和線蟲的發(fā)育過程、人工培養(yǎng)傳代細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榘┘?xì)胞的生化反應(yīng)、爪蟾胚胎發(fā)育過程中的異位基因表達(dá)。有證據(jù)表明,當(dāng)小鼠細(xì)胞中的Wnt信號通路有關(guān)基因被敲除后,小鼠胚胎就發(fā)生了特異性的發(fā)育缺陷。對于Wnt基因和其他Wnt信號傳導(dǎo)的組成部分是用于哺乳動物胚胎發(fā)育方面有非常重要的作用這一點(diǎn),已經(jīng)有了詳細(xì)的記載[15]。胚胎的正常發(fā)育與Wnt信號通路的非經(jīng)典途徑有關(guān),包括干細(xì)胞的增殖、腫瘤細(xì)胞的遷移和正常細(xì)胞的極化等,而Wnt信號調(diào)控紊亂會導(dǎo)致多種發(fā)育缺陷疾病的產(chǎn)生[5]。此外,在成年生物體的不同組織中也發(fā)現(xiàn)由于Wnt信號通路的故障從而引起了腫瘤效應(yīng)。如在人的散發(fā)性大腸癌中,90%是Wnt信號活化的;Wnt在CLL和前BALL中呈過表達(dá)狀態(tài)[16],當(dāng)CML急性發(fā)作時(shí),Wnt信號通路處于異常的活化狀態(tài);在肝癌、腦瘤、胰腺癌和腎癌中均可見到其下游效應(yīng)物β-catenin的點(diǎn)突變[8]。Wnt信號可以通過Wnt信號的下游效應(yīng)物的突變的傳遞作用被激活或通過Wnt配體的過表達(dá)而直接被激活[17]。

      Wnt信號傳導(dǎo)所調(diào)解的結(jié)果是根據(jù)特定的細(xì)胞活性環(huán)境刺激既可以促進(jìn),又可以抑制細(xì)胞凋亡的過程[18]。在正處于生長期與受到細(xì)胞損傷的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞、內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞、血管平滑肌細(xì)胞和心肌細(xì)胞中,Wnt信號調(diào)節(jié)通路對于早期與晚期細(xì)胞凋亡都具有調(diào)控作用[4]。Wnt信號通路調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞凋亡的重要的機(jī)制包括:WNT-BMP信號、BMP及HH信號通路與Wnt信號之間有非常密切的關(guān)系,BMP信號與一些效應(yīng)物的共同調(diào)節(jié)能夠抑制Wnt信號或限制Wnt配體的旁分泌效果[19-20];或通過SFRP2(secreted Frizzled-related protein-2,分泌型Frizzled依賴性蛋白-2)基因的表達(dá)增加了SFRP這種分泌型蛋白的表達(dá)增加,從而抑制膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞活性,限制膠質(zhì)瘤細(xì)胞移動[21];或通過β-catenin的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo),組成β-catenin-Tcf4復(fù)合體后影響cyclinD1啟動子的表達(dá),能夠有效地促進(jìn)大鼠模型中直腸癌的發(fā)生[22]。當(dāng)然,與其相關(guān)的還具有多種信號通路:GSK3-β-NF-κBeta,C-Jun N端激酶信號,和Dickkopf-1的基因表達(dá),nemo蛋白,SOX10蛋白和tau蛋白構(gòu)成的通路[4,23]。

      需要著重介紹的是一種新型的腫瘤抑制蛋白——腺瘤性結(jié)腸息肉蛋白(adenomatous polyposis coli,APC),其在細(xì)胞凋亡的過程中所產(chǎn)生的作用不容小覷,該基因編碼一種含有2843個氨基酸的復(fù)雜蛋白質(zhì),在許多成熟及胚胎組織中都有表達(dá)。APC對于細(xì)胞凋亡的影響在很大程度上取決于APC蛋白的長度,野生型APC的表達(dá)(310 kD)將會誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡,而突變基因會表達(dá)被截短的突變型APC蛋白質(zhì)從而抗凋亡。最近的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),腫瘤細(xì)胞的線粒體中表達(dá)APC的截短型的突變型肽鏈,且積累量很高。當(dāng)在APC基因序列中1~1309 bp的位點(diǎn)發(fā)生突變后,APC蛋白表現(xiàn)出較正常的野生型較短的肽鏈,從而抑制細(xì)胞的凋亡,使這種腫瘤細(xì)胞得以存活[24]。在有些細(xì)胞中發(fā)現(xiàn)了當(dāng)APC蛋白過表達(dá)后會結(jié)合Bcl-2蛋白從而增加其在線粒體中的表達(dá)量,Bcl-2作為一種存活因子,當(dāng)其分泌量增加就會導(dǎo)致癌細(xì)胞繼續(xù)存活下來并進(jìn)行擴(kuò)散,突變型的APC蛋白有能力將Bcl-2蛋白富集到腫瘤細(xì)胞的線粒體中,從而避免腫瘤細(xì)胞的凋亡。

      3 結(jié)論與展望

      細(xì)胞凋亡作為多細(xì)胞生物體在發(fā)育和維持體內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)過程中起重要的生理作用,一直是研究的熱門。研究促進(jìn)或抑制細(xì)胞凋亡機(jī)制對許多疾病的治療有特殊的意義。隨著對細(xì)胞凋亡機(jī)制的研究,將能夠研發(fā)新型藥物抑制細(xì)胞凋亡過程,從而增長細(xì)胞壽命,或是靶向某種特定細(xì)胞進(jìn)行靶向細(xì)胞凋亡,如對癌細(xì)胞進(jìn)行定向凋亡,未來新型智能治療藥物將會在細(xì)胞凋亡方面有較多的應(yīng)用。除此之外,通過對阻止細(xì)胞凋亡的治療研究,也能通過研發(fā)新藥特異地、高效地治療肌肉萎縮癥和神經(jīng)退行性疾病。

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      [12]汪群,孫權(quán).細(xì)胞周期素D1及相關(guān)基因在膽管癌中的進(jìn)展[J].國外醫(yī)學(xué)外科學(xué)分冊,2006,32(5):359-362.

      [13]Oishi I,Suzuki H,Onishi N,et al.The receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 is involved in non-canonical Wnt5a/JNK signalling pathway[J].Genes Cell,2003,8(7):645-654.

      [14]Yoda A,Oishi I,Minami Y.Expression and function of the Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases during development:lessons from genetic analyses of nematodes,mice,and humans[J].J Recept Signal Transduct Res,2003,23(1):1-15.

      [15]Bodine PV.Wnt signaling control of bone cell apoptosis[J].Cell Res,2008,18(2):248-253.

      [16]McWhirter JR,Neuteboom ST,Wancewicz EV,et al.Oncogenic homeodomain transcription factor E2A-Pbx1 activates a novel WNT gene in pre-B acute lymphoblastoid leukemia[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci UAS,1999,96(20):11464-11469.

      [17]Breuhahn K,Longerich T,Schirmacher P.Dysregulation of growth factor signaling in human hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Oncogene,2006,25(27):3787-3800.

      [18]Shulewitz M, Soloviev I,Wu T,et al.Repressor roles for TCF-4 and Sfrp1 in Wnt signaling in breast cancer[J].Oncogene,2006,25(31):4361-4369.

      [19]Katoh Y,Katoh M.WNT antagonist,SFRP1,is Hedgehog signaling target[J].Int J Mol Med,2006,17(1):171-175.

      [20]Marsit CJ,Karagas MR,Schned A,et al.Carcinogen exposure and epigenetic silencing in bladder cancer[J].Ann N Y Acad Sci,2006,1076:810-821.

      [21]Tetsu O,McCormick F.β-Catenin regulates expression of cyclin D1 in colon carcinoma cells[J].Nature,1999,398(6726):422-426.

      [22]Crowder RJ,F(xiàn)reeman RS.Glycogen synthase kinase-3β activity is critical for neuronal death caused by inhibiting phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase or Akt but not for death caused by nerve growth factor withdrawal[J].J Biol Chem,2000,275(44):34266-34271.

      [23]Ellies DL,Church V,F(xiàn)rancis-West P,et al.The WNT antagonist cSFRP2 modulates programmed cell death in the developing hindbrain[J].Development,2000,127(24):5285-5295.

      [24]Brocardo M,Henderson BR.APC shuttling to the membrane,nucleus and beyond[J].Trends Cell Biol,2008,18(12):587-596.

      (收稿日期:2014-03-13本文編輯:李亞聰)

      endprint

      [7]MacDonald BT,Tamai K,He X.Wnt/β-catenin signaling:components,mechanisms,and diseases[J].Dev Cell,2009,17(1):9-26.

      [8]Polakis P.Wnt signaling and cancer[J].Genes Dev,2000,14(15):1837-1851.

      [9]Topol L,Jiang X,Choi H,et al.Wnt-5a inhibits the canonical Wnt pathway by promoting GSK-3-independent β-catenin degradation[J].J Cell Biol,2003,162(5):899-908.

      [10]Medrano EE.Wnt5a and PKC,a deadly partnership involved in melanoma invasion[J].Pigment Cell Res,2007,20(4):258-259.

      [11]Suzuki A,Ito T,Kawano H,et al.Survivin initiates procaspase 3/p21 complex formation as a result of interaction with Cdk4 to resist Fas-mediated cell death[J].Oncogene,2000,19(10):1346-1353.

      [12]汪群,孫權(quán).細(xì)胞周期素D1及相關(guān)基因在膽管癌中的進(jìn)展[J].國外醫(yī)學(xué)外科學(xué)分冊,2006,32(5):359-362.

      [13]Oishi I,Suzuki H,Onishi N,et al.The receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 is involved in non-canonical Wnt5a/JNK signalling pathway[J].Genes Cell,2003,8(7):645-654.

      [14]Yoda A,Oishi I,Minami Y.Expression and function of the Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases during development:lessons from genetic analyses of nematodes,mice,and humans[J].J Recept Signal Transduct Res,2003,23(1):1-15.

      [15]Bodine PV.Wnt signaling control of bone cell apoptosis[J].Cell Res,2008,18(2):248-253.

      [16]McWhirter JR,Neuteboom ST,Wancewicz EV,et al.Oncogenic homeodomain transcription factor E2A-Pbx1 activates a novel WNT gene in pre-B acute lymphoblastoid leukemia[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci UAS,1999,96(20):11464-11469.

      [17]Breuhahn K,Longerich T,Schirmacher P.Dysregulation of growth factor signaling in human hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Oncogene,2006,25(27):3787-3800.

      [18]Shulewitz M, Soloviev I,Wu T,et al.Repressor roles for TCF-4 and Sfrp1 in Wnt signaling in breast cancer[J].Oncogene,2006,25(31):4361-4369.

      [19]Katoh Y,Katoh M.WNT antagonist,SFRP1,is Hedgehog signaling target[J].Int J Mol Med,2006,17(1):171-175.

      [20]Marsit CJ,Karagas MR,Schned A,et al.Carcinogen exposure and epigenetic silencing in bladder cancer[J].Ann N Y Acad Sci,2006,1076:810-821.

      [21]Tetsu O,McCormick F.β-Catenin regulates expression of cyclin D1 in colon carcinoma cells[J].Nature,1999,398(6726):422-426.

      [22]Crowder RJ,F(xiàn)reeman RS.Glycogen synthase kinase-3β activity is critical for neuronal death caused by inhibiting phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase or Akt but not for death caused by nerve growth factor withdrawal[J].J Biol Chem,2000,275(44):34266-34271.

      [23]Ellies DL,Church V,F(xiàn)rancis-West P,et al.The WNT antagonist cSFRP2 modulates programmed cell death in the developing hindbrain[J].Development,2000,127(24):5285-5295.

      [24]Brocardo M,Henderson BR.APC shuttling to the membrane,nucleus and beyond[J].Trends Cell Biol,2008,18(12):587-596.

      (收稿日期:2014-03-13本文編輯:李亞聰)

      endprint

      [7]MacDonald BT,Tamai K,He X.Wnt/β-catenin signaling:components,mechanisms,and diseases[J].Dev Cell,2009,17(1):9-26.

      [8]Polakis P.Wnt signaling and cancer[J].Genes Dev,2000,14(15):1837-1851.

      [9]Topol L,Jiang X,Choi H,et al.Wnt-5a inhibits the canonical Wnt pathway by promoting GSK-3-independent β-catenin degradation[J].J Cell Biol,2003,162(5):899-908.

      [10]Medrano EE.Wnt5a and PKC,a deadly partnership involved in melanoma invasion[J].Pigment Cell Res,2007,20(4):258-259.

      [11]Suzuki A,Ito T,Kawano H,et al.Survivin initiates procaspase 3/p21 complex formation as a result of interaction with Cdk4 to resist Fas-mediated cell death[J].Oncogene,2000,19(10):1346-1353.

      [12]汪群,孫權(quán).細(xì)胞周期素D1及相關(guān)基因在膽管癌中的進(jìn)展[J].國外醫(yī)學(xué)外科學(xué)分冊,2006,32(5):359-362.

      [13]Oishi I,Suzuki H,Onishi N,et al.The receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 is involved in non-canonical Wnt5a/JNK signalling pathway[J].Genes Cell,2003,8(7):645-654.

      [14]Yoda A,Oishi I,Minami Y.Expression and function of the Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases during development:lessons from genetic analyses of nematodes,mice,and humans[J].J Recept Signal Transduct Res,2003,23(1):1-15.

      [15]Bodine PV.Wnt signaling control of bone cell apoptosis[J].Cell Res,2008,18(2):248-253.

      [16]McWhirter JR,Neuteboom ST,Wancewicz EV,et al.Oncogenic homeodomain transcription factor E2A-Pbx1 activates a novel WNT gene in pre-B acute lymphoblastoid leukemia[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci UAS,1999,96(20):11464-11469.

      [17]Breuhahn K,Longerich T,Schirmacher P.Dysregulation of growth factor signaling in human hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Oncogene,2006,25(27):3787-3800.

      [18]Shulewitz M, Soloviev I,Wu T,et al.Repressor roles for TCF-4 and Sfrp1 in Wnt signaling in breast cancer[J].Oncogene,2006,25(31):4361-4369.

      [19]Katoh Y,Katoh M.WNT antagonist,SFRP1,is Hedgehog signaling target[J].Int J Mol Med,2006,17(1):171-175.

      [20]Marsit CJ,Karagas MR,Schned A,et al.Carcinogen exposure and epigenetic silencing in bladder cancer[J].Ann N Y Acad Sci,2006,1076:810-821.

      [21]Tetsu O,McCormick F.β-Catenin regulates expression of cyclin D1 in colon carcinoma cells[J].Nature,1999,398(6726):422-426.

      [22]Crowder RJ,F(xiàn)reeman RS.Glycogen synthase kinase-3β activity is critical for neuronal death caused by inhibiting phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase or Akt but not for death caused by nerve growth factor withdrawal[J].J Biol Chem,2000,275(44):34266-34271.

      [23]Ellies DL,Church V,F(xiàn)rancis-West P,et al.The WNT antagonist cSFRP2 modulates programmed cell death in the developing hindbrain[J].Development,2000,127(24):5285-5295.

      [24]Brocardo M,Henderson BR.APC shuttling to the membrane,nucleus and beyond[J].Trends Cell Biol,2008,18(12):587-596.

      (收稿日期:2014-03-13本文編輯:李亞聰)

      endprint

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