杜 彬 丁有權 齊建國
(四川大學:華西基礎醫(yī)學與法醫(yī)學院,組織胚胎學與神經(jīng)生物學教研室,成都 610041)
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周圍神經(jīng)損傷后皮膚交感神經(jīng)出芽及其功能意義
杜 彬 丁有權 齊建國*
(四川大學:華西基礎醫(yī)學與法醫(yī)學院,組織胚胎學與神經(jīng)生物學教研室,成都 610041)
周圍神經(jīng)損傷除了引起該神經(jīng)所支配的區(qū)域出現(xiàn)感覺、運動和自主功能障礙之外,還可以誘發(fā)神經(jīng)病理性疼痛,包括自發(fā)性疼痛、痛覺過敏和異常性疼痛。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),周圍神經(jīng)損傷后,正常情況下只存在于皮膚深真皮及皮下組織的交感神經(jīng)纖維,會出芽至淺真皮,并與感覺神經(jīng)纖維相互伴行。神經(jīng)病理性疼痛的發(fā)病機制目前尚不明確,考慮到皮膚交感出芽與感覺神經(jīng)纖維在皮膚分布上的密切關系,本文特就各種周圍神經(jīng)損傷后皮膚交感神經(jīng)出芽、出芽的來源、促進交感出芽的因素、交感出芽對感覺神經(jīng)功能的影響以及與神經(jīng)病理性疼痛的關系進行了綜述,希望對進一步深入了解周圍神經(jīng)損傷及其造成的神經(jīng)功能異常的細胞和分子機制有所助益。
周圍神經(jīng)損傷;交感神經(jīng)纖維;出芽;神經(jīng)病理性疼痛
交感神經(jīng)纖維廣泛分布于全身各器官,刺激交感神經(jīng)能引起腹腔內臟及皮膚末梢血管收縮、心搏加強和加速、瞳孔散大、消化腺分泌減少等廣泛效應。正常情況下,交感神經(jīng)纖維不直接支配背根節(jié)(dorsal root ganglion,DRG)內的感覺神經(jīng)元,僅支配并調節(jié)感覺神經(jīng)元周圍伴行的血管[1]。1993年,McLachlan等在坐骨神經(jīng)的神經(jīng)瘤模型上,首次發(fā)現(xiàn)DRG內支配血管的交感神經(jīng)纖維發(fā)生出芽(sprouting)現(xiàn)象,并且這些纖維枝芽主要分布在DRG內大中型神經(jīng)元胞體周圍,形成所謂的“籃狀”結構[2]。隨后,在多種周圍神經(jīng)損傷模型上也觀察到DRG中交感纖維的出芽[3-5]。目前普遍認為DRG交感出芽形成的“籃狀”結構在周圍神經(jīng)損傷后引起的神經(jīng)病理性疼痛中有重要作用[6]。在正常狀態(tài)下,皮膚的交感神經(jīng)纖維僅分布在深真皮及皮下組織,具有促進皮膚血管收縮和汗腺分泌的作用。2000年,Ruocco等在大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)橫斷傷后,首次在大鼠下唇皮膚中發(fā)現(xiàn)本應只存在于深真皮及皮下組織的交感神經(jīng)纖維出芽至淺真皮[7]。我們最近的研究也表明,大鼠坐骨神經(jīng)擠壓傷后其后肢足底出現(xiàn)神經(jīng)病理性疼痛,并伴隨相關皮膚區(qū)域的交感樣纖維出芽[8]??紤]到神經(jīng)病理性疼痛主要表現(xiàn)在相關皮膚區(qū)域的慢性疼痛,交感神經(jīng)和感覺傳入神經(jīng)末梢又在皮膚密集分布,因此周圍神經(jīng)損傷后皮膚交感神經(jīng)出芽及其可能的功能意義值得重視。
正常情況下,在大鼠皮膚中交感神經(jīng)纖維只分布于深真皮及皮下組織,富含較大、形態(tài)規(guī)則的膨體,其分支在血管周圍呈網(wǎng)狀排列(圖1A)。皮膚中的軀體感覺神經(jīng)纖維遍布于皮膚各部,在淺真皮中密度最高,靠近鄰近的肥大細胞或毛囊,并以小纖維束的形式與血管伴行。感覺神經(jīng)纖維可穿入表皮,其中最靠近表皮表面的纖維富含膨體[7](圖1A、圖1C)。Ruocco等在2002年更加詳細地觀察和報道了大鼠和猴下唇皮膚中自主神經(jīng)纖維(包括交感神經(jīng)纖維和副交感神經(jīng)纖維)和軀體感覺神經(jīng)纖維的分布,并首次發(fā)現(xiàn)了自主神經(jīng)纖維與感覺神經(jīng)纖維可共同支配皮膚血管,參與皮膚微循環(huán)的調節(jié)[9]。
一般認為,在皮膚中單獨的交感活動作用不明顯,但交感神經(jīng)纖維與感覺神經(jīng)纖維可組成一個有機體,通過調節(jié)血管收縮或舒張,參與體溫的調控[10]。此外,在大鼠下唇皮膚中,可觀察到感覺神經(jīng)纖維與副交感神經(jīng)纖維相互伴行,兩者共同作用,促進內皮細胞進一步釋放一氧化氮,可能加強血管擴張性活動[11]。皮膚中各類神經(jīng)纖維之間雖然沒有直接的突觸聯(lián)系,但彼此密切相關,自主性神經(jīng)纖維比感覺神經(jīng)纖維更靠近血管平滑肌及內皮細胞,有利于信號更快傳遞到血管壁并產(chǎn)生反應。
皮膚交感出芽首先由Ruocco等在大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)橫斷傷模型中發(fā)現(xiàn)[7],后來又陸續(xù)在大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)慢性壓榨傷(chronic constriction injury,CCI)、坐骨神經(jīng)慢性壓榨傷、坐骨神經(jīng)保留性神經(jīng)損傷(spared nerve injury,SNI)、坐骨神經(jīng)卡壓傷等模型上也分別報道了皮膚中交感纖維出芽的現(xiàn)象[12-14](圖1B)。最近我們研究組在大鼠坐骨神經(jīng)擠壓傷(sciatic nerve crush,SNC)模型上,也觀察到交感樣纖維出芽至淺真皮[8](圖1C、圖1D)。
圖1 交感神經(jīng)和感覺神經(jīng)纖維在皮膚中的分布及交感出芽。A,交感神經(jīng)纖維和感覺神經(jīng)纖維在皮膚中的正常分布示意圖;B,示意圖,示周圍神經(jīng)損傷后,交感神經(jīng)纖維出芽至淺真皮并與再生的感覺神經(jīng)纖維伴行;C,正常大鼠足底皮膚神經(jīng)纖維的免疫熒光染色,未觀察到交感樣纖維出芽;D,大鼠SNC術后4周,交感樣纖維(串珠狀膨體有規(guī)律地排布)出芽至淺真皮;免疫熒光染色一抗:兔PGP 9.5抗體,1:100;長箭頭,初級感覺纖維;短箭頭示交感樣纖維;E:表皮;UD:淺真皮,LD:深真皮Fig.1 The distribution of sympathetic and sensory nerve fibers in the skins and schematic illustration of ectopic sprouting of sympathetic nerve fibers. A,schematic illustration of the normal distribution of sympathetic and sensory nerve fibers in the skins;B,schematic illustration of ectopic sprouting of sympathetic nerve fibers to accompany regenerated sensory nerve fibers into the upper dermis(UD)of the skins;C,immunofluorescent staining of nerve fibers in the plantar skins of normal rat hindpaws,where no ectopic sprouting of sympathetic-like nerve fibers was observed;D,sympathetic-like nerve fibers with beaded large varicosities ectopically sprout into the upper dermis 4 weeks after adult rat sciatic nerve crush.Immunofluorescent staining:primary antibody:rabbit polyclonal antibody against PGP 9.5,1:100;arrow,primary sensory nerve fibers;arrowhead,sympathetic-like nerve fibers.E,epidermis;UD,upper dermis;LD,lower dermis
神經(jīng)完全損傷模型和部分損傷模型都可導致皮膚中原本支配血管的交感纖維出芽至淺真皮。以大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)損傷為例,神經(jīng)橫斷傷和慢性壓榨傷都可觀察到交感出芽的現(xiàn)象[7、12]。但在不同神經(jīng)損傷模型,皮膚中交感纖維出芽時間卻有所差別。在頦神經(jīng)慢性壓榨傷中,術后2周出現(xiàn)交感出芽,4周出芽達到高峰,6個月后慢慢減少[12],而在坐骨神經(jīng)卡壓傷術后4周才出現(xiàn)交感出芽,6周達到峰值,隨后慢慢減少[14],這提示出芽時間的差異可能與損傷模型的不同有關,但具體機制尚不清楚。
Ruocco等在大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)橫斷傷后4周(此時交感出芽最明顯)之前,實施交感神經(jīng)節(jié)切除術,4周后發(fā)現(xiàn)軀體感覺神經(jīng)纖維仍然繼續(xù)再生,而淺真皮中交感纖維并未出現(xiàn)。這提示淺真皮異位交感來自于深真皮的交感神經(jīng),而且排除了感覺纖維的再生是來自于交感纖維的表型轉換[7]。關于交感纖維是如何通過結締組織出芽至淺真皮,目前尚未有定論,猜測可能是因為交感神經(jīng)纖維與感覺神經(jīng)纖維在深真皮相互伴行,感覺神經(jīng)去支配后,交感纖維會隨著其去支配軌跡出芽至淺真皮。有證據(jù)表明,在坐骨神經(jīng)橫斷傷(sciatic nerve transection,SNT)后,位于退化神經(jīng)元周圍的施萬細胞會促進神經(jīng)生長因子和低親和力神經(jīng)生長因子受體p75的合成,使損傷處神經(jīng)生長因子的濃度增加,可能進而促進交感纖維沿著感覺神經(jīng)纖維去支配軌跡出芽至淺真皮[15]。
目前皮膚交感出芽的研究大多停留在現(xiàn)象層面,對機制尚未有深入的闡釋。大多數(shù)研究認為神經(jīng)生長因子(nerve growth factor,NGF)在皮膚交感出芽過程中扮演著重要角色。在胚胎發(fā)育過程中,NGF的表達對交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的正常發(fā)育和成熟具有重要作用。有研究表明,小鼠皮膚角質細胞過度表達NGF往往伴隨著肽能神經(jīng)纖維密度的增加以及交感纖維的分布改變,此時小鼠會對熱和機械刺激敏感性增加[16-17]。部分神經(jīng)損傷模型已證實皮膚中交感和肽能感覺神經(jīng)纖維的密度增加[12-13、18],因此我們猜測周圍神經(jīng)損傷后可能有NGF的過度表達,尚需進一步研究。
NGF在皮膚主要由肥大細胞、角質細胞以及血管內皮細胞等細胞合成,通過與細胞表面高親和力的NGF受體酪氨酸激酶TrkA、低親和力受體p75結合發(fā)揮作用,TrkA和p75均可在交感神經(jīng)和感覺神經(jīng)纖維上檢測得到[19]。Jennifer等[20]進一步研究證實,坐骨神經(jīng)慢性壓榨傷后交感纖維周圍會出現(xiàn)大量肥大細胞,肥大細胞可產(chǎn)生NGF,與表面受體TrkA、p75結合,可能促進交感的出芽以及感覺纖維的再生(圖2A)。相比而言,產(chǎn)生NGF的細胞與交感纖維關系更為密切。壓榨傷后施萬細胞活化使p75受體的表達上調,并且使外周中Il-1β和TNF-α兩個細胞因子的含量也增加,細胞因子可促進產(chǎn)生NGF的細胞對NGF的轉錄和翻譯表達增強,導致NGF合成的增加[20-21],也可能致敏纖維,導致神經(jīng)病理性疼痛(圖2B)。此外,神經(jīng)元異常自發(fā)放電等也可能與交感出芽機制有關[22]??傊?,目前周圍神經(jīng)損傷后皮膚中交感出芽的機制尚未系統(tǒng)闡明,有必要進一步研究。
5.1 皮膚交感出芽對感覺神經(jīng)功能的影響
在正常生理狀態(tài)下,交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)與外周感覺神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)極少發(fā)生解剖學上的直接聯(lián)系,外周感覺傳入神經(jīng)及其末梢感受器也與交感神經(jīng)之間沒有功能上的聯(lián)系。但在周圍神經(jīng)損傷、軟組織創(chuàng)傷和組織炎癥等病理狀況下,交感神經(jīng)既可在感受器水平,也可在感覺傳入通路上對感覺信息進行調制[23]。目前認為,交感神經(jīng)是通過形成交感-感覺耦聯(lián),參與感覺信息的調制。大量研究表明,周圍神經(jīng)損傷和組織炎癥后,受損神經(jīng)的感覺神經(jīng)元胞體、外周傷害性感受器和再生的纖維均表現(xiàn)出對腎上腺素受體激動劑和交感傳出纖維興奮的異常敏化[24]。
Ruocco等在大鼠雙側頦神經(jīng)損傷后8周,發(fā)現(xiàn)交感纖維與感覺神經(jīng)纖維在淺真皮中伴行分布[7],這可能就是一種交感-感覺耦聯(lián)現(xiàn)象。有研究表明,在外周神經(jīng)損傷后,交感纖維可釋放去甲腎上腺素(norepinephrine,NE)直接刺激C型感覺纖維表達α2腎上腺素受體并與之結合,對感覺纖維發(fā)揮調制作用[2]。然而又有研究表明,NE不直接作用于傳入神經(jīng)纖維,其釋放后通過介導其他致痛化學物質與其相應的受體發(fā)生作用,例如NE作用于自身交感神經(jīng)末端,然后釋放前列腺素等炎性介質,后者導致感覺神經(jīng)敏化[25](圖2B)。除此之外,交感纖維還可能釋放神經(jīng)肽Y和三磷酸腺苷,通過與Y1、Y2或P2X3受體結合,調節(jié)初級傳入纖維的活動[26-27]。
圖2 促進皮膚交感出芽的影響因素及出芽對感覺神經(jīng)功能的影響示意圖。A,周圍神經(jīng)損傷后,肥大細胞、血管內皮細胞等大量釋放神經(jīng)生長因子,促使交感出芽并與再生的感覺神經(jīng)纖維相互伴行;B,交感神經(jīng)纖維釋放去甲腎上腺素,直接或間接作用于感覺神經(jīng)纖維,形成交感-感覺耦聯(lián)的分子基礎Fig.2 Schematic diagram showing factors promoting ectopic sprouting of sympathetic nerve fibers into the upper dermis and the effect of ectopic sprouting of sympathetic nerve fibers on sensory nervous functions.A,mast cells and endothelial cells largely release nerve growth factors(NGFs)after peripheral nerve injury,which initiates ectopic sprouting of sympathetic nerve fibers into the upper dermis to accompany regenerated sensory nerve fibers;B,the terminals of sympathetic nerve fibers release noradrenalin,which directly or indirectly alter nociceptive functions of primary sensory nerve fibers. This lay the cellular foundation of sympathetic-sensory coupling in the skin areas
此外,交感-感覺耦聯(lián)也可能通過減少組織血流量起作用。Habler等在脊神經(jīng)損傷后,對大鼠分別行交感神經(jīng)刺激和靜脈內注射去甲腎上腺素,觀察背根節(jié)感覺神經(jīng)元的自發(fā)放電反應,同時用多普勒血流計檢測背根節(jié)血流量。發(fā)現(xiàn)伴隨著背根節(jié)血流量減少,只有17.6%的背根節(jié)神經(jīng)元對高頻交感刺激有反應,28.6%的神經(jīng)元對NE有反應。而應用非腎上腺素能的血管收縮劑,即血管緊張素II和血管加壓素,也能模擬類似的自發(fā)放電反應,所以推測背根節(jié)對交感刺激的興奮反應與交感刺激引發(fā)背根節(jié)血管收縮、血流減少密切相關[28]。而在皮膚中,交感-感覺耦聯(lián)能否通過改變組織血流量起作用,目前尚未有研究。
5.2 皮膚交感出芽與神經(jīng)病理性疼痛
皮膚交感出芽是否導致神經(jīng)病理性疼痛,往往參照實驗對象皮膚交感出芽后其疼痛行為方式是否改變而定,其中機械性觸誘發(fā)痛、冷觸誘發(fā)痛是目前行為學測試中最主要的兩種方法。早在1996年,就有研究表明,外周神經(jīng)損傷有時會導致神經(jīng)病理性疼痛,并認為這可能是交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)激活的結果。2015年,Nascimento等發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個有趣的現(xiàn)象,在坐骨神經(jīng)SNI和Cuff損傷模型中,都會出現(xiàn)皮膚交感出芽,然而異位交感纖維在坐骨神經(jīng) SNI模型中可促冷痛,而在Cuff模型中卻促進機械性疼痛[14]。這種不同神經(jīng)損傷模型中交感出芽導致不同類型疼痛現(xiàn)象的機制,目前尚不清楚。有研究表明,小鼠中存在著標志性疼痛通路,即特定的傳入神經(jīng)纖維調制特定類型的疼痛[29-31],意味著要么異位交感纖維與這種特定的傳入神經(jīng)纖維緊密聯(lián)系,要么就是這種特定的傳入神經(jīng)纖維在不同神經(jīng)損傷后具有不同的能力,以調節(jié)腎上腺素能神經(jīng)反應性,這或許能解釋不同損傷模型下交感出芽與疼痛類型的關系。
在臨床實踐中,部分慢性疼痛患者伴有交感功能紊亂,而采用交感神經(jīng)切除術或藥物阻斷交感神經(jīng)功能的方法可部分緩解疼痛[32]。Chung等的實驗表明,腰交感神經(jīng)切除術可降低機械感覺異常和熱痛覺過敏,而脊神經(jīng)結扎傷(spinal nerve ligation,SNL)術前切除交感神經(jīng)可以避免疼痛行為的發(fā)展。但是,Ringkamp等分別通過手術和藥物干預SNL動物的交感功能,并未發(fā)現(xiàn)實驗組和對照組有明顯差異[33-34]。因此,目前交感神經(jīng)出芽和疼痛行為學之間的關系仍充滿爭議。
皮膚交感神經(jīng)纖維出芽與周圍神經(jīng)損傷后神經(jīng)病理性疼痛等臨床疾病密切相關。長期以來,皮膚交感出芽并不像背根節(jié)交感出芽那樣受到研究者的重視。本文從皮膚交感出芽的現(xiàn)象入手,闡述了影響皮膚交感出芽的因素及其可能的機制,以及交感出芽的功能意義,希望為皮膚交感出芽及其機制研究提供新思路。
目前皮膚交感出芽的研究主要集中在各種周圍神經(jīng)損傷模型及其導致的疼痛行為學變化方面,而在皮膚交感出芽的機制或者確定影響其出芽的相關細胞分子方面的研究卻鮮有報道。近年來針對痛覺形成的討論,或許會給我們研究交感神經(jīng)在疼痛中的作用提供新思路。臨床上諸如復雜性區(qū)域疼痛綜合征(complex regional pain syndrome,CRPS)和急性帶狀皰疹患者也會表現(xiàn)出交感維持性疼痛(sympathetically maintained pain,SMP)的癥狀,這提示我們在臨床實踐中也需考慮交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)與疼痛的關系??傊嘘P交感出芽的基礎研究和臨床治療實踐表明,進一步深入了解皮膚交感神經(jīng)纖維出芽的分子機制具有重要意義,尤其是皮膚交感出芽是否參與疼痛的發(fā)生及其細胞分子機制需要得到研究者的高度重視。
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Sympathetic fiber sprouting in the skin after peripheral nerve injury and its functional significance
Du Bin,Ding Youquan,Qi Jianguo*
(Department of Histology,Embryology and Neurobiology,West China School of Preclinical and Forensic Medicine,Sichuan University,Chengdu 610041,China)
Besides impairment of sensory,motor and autonomic nervous functions,peripheral nerve injuries induce the development and persistence of pathological pain,which is manifested as spontaneous pain,hyperalgesia and allodynia.Recent studies have shown that,after peripheral nerve injury,sympathetic nerve fibers originally located in the lower dermis and subcutaneous tissue ectopically sprout into the upper dermis and accompany peptidergic nociceptive fibers around blood vessels.Roles and mechanisms of sympathetic nerve fibers in the pathogenesis of peripheral neuropathic pain is not yet clear.Given the close relationship of sprouted sympathetic nerve fibers with peptidergic nociceptive fibers,this review summarized the presence and anatomical origin of sympathetic nerve fiber sprouting in the skin after various peripheral nerve injuries,the molecules known to induce sympathetic nerve fiber sprouting,the peripheral sensitization of peptidergic nociceptive fibers by sprouted sympathetic nerve fibers and its role in neuropathic pain pathogenesis.This review will shed light on further studies on roles and mechanisms of sympathetic nerve fibers in the pathogenesis of peripheral neuropathic pain.
Peripheral nerve injury;Sympathetic fibers;Sprouting;Neuropathic pain
R745
A
10.16705/j.cnki.1004-1850.
2016-01-12 〔修回日期〕2016-03-31
四川省科技支撐項目(2013SZ0069)
杜彬,男(1993年),漢族,碩士研究生
(To whom correspondence should be addressed):jgqi@scu.edu.cn