1.心

Heart / Mind

“心”是人之情感、認(rèn)識(shí)和價(jià)值的基礎(chǔ)，生命的主宰。與耳、目、鼻、口等被動(dòng)地感知外物不同，“心”具有思考的能力，可以辨別和整理感官所獲得的材料，進(jìn)行知識(shí)和道德判斷。孟子認(rèn)為“心”包含惻隱、辭讓、羞惡、是非等四端，道德實(shí)踐的核心就是保存并擴(kuò)充人固有的善心。道家則認(rèn)為虛靜是心的根本狀態(tài)，如靜止之水，由此可以把握天地萬物的本原。

The heart，a vital organ of life，underpins one’s emotions，awareness，and value judgments. Different from the ears，eyes，nose，and mouth，which sense the outer world in a passive way，the heart is capable of thinking and performing intellectual and moral evaluations on the basis of analyzing and sorting out what these organs have sensed. Mencius believed that the heart consists of four aspects：compassion，deference，sense of shame or detestation，and conscience. Preserving and expanding one’s good heart is the central aim in practicing moral teachings. According to Daoism，a serene and uncluttered heart is the highest state for a human being，much like a peaceful pool of still water. Such calmness is the way in which the heart can capture the essence of all things in the world.

引例 Citations：

◎耳目之官不思，而蔽于物。物交物，則引之而已矣。心之官則思，思則得之，不思則不得也。(《孟子·告子上》)

(耳目等器官不能思考，因而被外物的表象遮蔽。耳目與外物相接觸，就會(huì)被其引向歧途?！靶摹边@個(gè)器官能夠思考，思考便能有所得，不思考便無所得。)

The sensory organs like ears and eyes cannot think. Therefore，they tend to be overwhelmed by the representation of external objects，and be led astray by those objects when coming into contact with them. The heart，however，is an organ capable of thinking. Thinking yields insight，while lack of it will get one nowhere. (Mencius)

◎心者，一身之主宰。(《朱子語(yǔ)類》卷五)

(心是人身體的主宰。)

Heart is the dominant organ of one’s body. (ClassifiedConversationsofMasterZhuXi)

2.性

Xing(Nature)

古人所討論的“性”，主要指“人性”。“性”的概念包含兩個(gè)要點(diǎn)：其一，是事物天生所具有的屬性，非后天人為；其二，是某類事物普遍具有的屬性，非某些個(gè)體所特有。據(jù)此而言，“人性”觀念也有兩種不同的含義：其一，指人天生所具有的普遍屬性，包括身體上的各種生命特征及欲望、知覺等；其二，指人天生所具有的人之所以為人的本質(zhì)屬性，亦即人區(qū)別于禽獸的道德本性。歷代學(xué)者對(duì)人性善惡的問題有著許多不同的看法，或性善，或性惡，或性無善惡，或性有善有不善，或有性善有性不善。

Xing(性) mainly referred to human nature in ancient times. The concept ofxinghas two essential points. First，it refers to the inherent nature of all things，not as a result of nurture. Second，it refers to the common nature of certain kind of things，not the nature of individual things of that kind. Similarly，human nature，too，has two meanings. First，it refers to inherent attributes all people share，including physical features，desires，and consciousness. Second，it is the essential and distinct attribute that distinguishes people from birds and beasts，in other words，human’s moral nature. Scholars throughout history held varied views over the question whether human nature was good or evil. Some believed it was good. Some thought it was evil. Some held that it was neither good nor evil. Some held that human nature could be both good and evil in the same person. Some thought that human nature was good in some people，but evil in others.

引例 Citations：

◎食、色，性也。(《孟子·告子上》)

(對(duì)飲食和美色的追求是人的本性。)

To love food and good looks is but human nature. (Mencius)

◎性即理也。(《二程遺書》卷二十二上)

(性就是理。)

Human nature is in line with the principles of heaven. (WritingsoftheChengBrothers)

3.四書

Four Books

《論語(yǔ)》《孟子》《大學(xué)》《中庸》等四部儒家經(jīng)典的合稱?！洞髮W(xué)》《中庸》原是《禮記》中的兩篇，在唐代以前，并沒有引起人們的特別重視。隨著唐宋以來儒學(xué)的復(fù)興，《大學(xué)》《中庸》經(jīng)過唐代韓愈、李翱的表彰，宋代二程、朱熹的推崇，被賦予了新的意義，其地位逐漸提升，與《論語(yǔ)》《孟子》并列，合稱“四書”。朱熹所著《四書章句集注》確立了“四書”的經(jīng)典地位?！八臅背蔀樗蚊骼韺W(xué)家創(chuàng)建、闡發(fā)自身思想的重要素材，對(duì)后世儒學(xué)的發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了深遠(yuǎn)影響。

This term refers collectively to the four Confucian classics：TheAnalects，Mencius，TheGreatLearning，andTheDoctrineoftheMean.TheGreatLearningandTheDoctrineoftheMeanoriginally were two sections ofTheBookofRites，but before the Tang Dynasty，they did not attract much attention. Following the revival of Confucianism which began in the Tang and Song dynasties，through the advocacy of Han Yu and Li Ao of the Tang Dynasty，the Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) and Zhu Xi of the Song Dynasty，TheGreatLearningandTheDoctrineoftheMeanwere given new meaning. Their standing was gradually elevated，and they were regarded just as important asTheAnalectsandMencius. The four were then collectively known as the Four Books.CommentariesontheFourBooks，written by Zhu Xi，established the dominant position of the Four Books，which formed the foundation for the neo-Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties. The Four Books became the source from which the neo-Confucian scholars drew inspiration to further their learning，and thus exerted profound influence on the development of Confucianism.

引例 Citation：

◎如《大學(xué)》《中庸》《語(yǔ)》《孟》四書，道理粲然。(《朱子語(yǔ)類》卷十四)

(如《大學(xué)》《中庸》《論語(yǔ)》《孟子》四部經(jīng)典，其中的道理明白易懂。)

The principles in the Four Books，i.e.，TheGreatLearning，TheDoctrineoftheMean，TheAnalects，andMencius，are illuminating and easy to follow. (ClassifiedConversationsofMasterZhuXi)

4.五經(jīng)

Five Classics

《詩(shī)》《書》《禮》《易》《春秋》等五部儒家經(jīng)典的合稱。先秦時(shí)期有“六經(jīng)”之說，指《詩(shī)》《書》《禮》《樂》《易》《春秋》，因《樂》已亡佚(一說無文字)，故漢代多稱“五經(jīng)”。從漢武帝立“五經(jīng)博士”起，“五經(jīng)”之學(xué)成為中國(guó)學(xué)術(shù)、文化和思想的根本。從內(nèi)容上來說，“五經(jīng)”各有所偏重，如《詩(shī)》言志、《書》言事等，因其不同而互補(bǔ)，故構(gòu)成一個(gè)整體。歷代儒者通過對(duì)文本的不斷解釋，為這些經(jīng)典賦予了豐富的意義?！拔褰?jīng)”之學(xué)包括中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)文化對(duì)于世界秩序與價(jià)值的根本理解，是道的集中體現(xiàn)。

The term refers to the five Confucian classics：TheBookofSongs，TheBookofHistory，TheBookofRites，TheBookofChanges，andTheSpringandAutumnAnnals. In the pre-Qin period，the term “Six Classics” was used，referring toTheBookofSongs，TheBookofHistory，TheBookofRites，TheBookofMusic，TheBookofChanges，andTheSpringandAutumnAnnals.TheBookofMusicdid not exist in written form，hence people often used the term “Five Classics” during the Han Dynasty. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty established the title of “Academician of the Five Classics，” study of these works became the foundation of Chinese learning，culture，and thought. In terms of content，the Five Classics each has its own focus；for instance，TheBookofSongsdeals with aspirations，andTheBookofHistorychronicles events. Different in focus but complementing each other，they form an integral collection of classics. Throughout history，Confucian scholars added significant meaning to these classics with their interpretations of the original texts. The Five Classics comprise traditional Chinese culture’s fundamental understanding of world order and values，epitomizing the concept ofDao.

引例 Citation：

◎“五經(jīng)”何謂？謂《易》《尚書》《詩(shī)》《禮》《春秋》也。(《白虎通義·五經(jīng)》)

(“五經(jīng)”是什么？是《易》《尚書》《詩(shī)》《禮》《春秋》等五部典籍。)

Which are the Five Classics? They are：TheBookofSongs，TheBookofHistory，TheBookofRites，TheBookofChanges，andTheSpringandAutumnAnnals. (DebatesoftheWhiteTigerHall)

5.中華

Zhonghua

“中華”是“中國(guó)”與“華夏”復(fù)合的簡(jiǎn)稱?！叭A”同“花”，喻指文化燦爛。華夏的先民建國(guó)于黃河中下游，自認(rèn)為居天下之中央，且又文化發(fā)達(dá)，所以稱“中華”。隨著華夏族為主體的多民族國(guó)家的不斷擴(kuò)張，凡所統(tǒng)轄之地，皆稱中華。在近現(xiàn)代歷史中，“中華”成為指稱中國(guó)、中國(guó)人及中國(guó)文化的一種符號(hào)。

This term is an abbreviation of the compound word formed byZhongguo(中國(guó)) andHuaxia(華夏). Here，hua(華) also means “flower” or “flowery，” which was used as an analogy for a splendid culture. The ancestors of theHuaxiapeople established their state in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River，which they thought was the center (zhong) of the world and which had a flourishing culture (hua)，so the state was calledZhonghua. This multi-ethnic state，with theHuaxiapeople as the predominant group of its population，later began its territorial expansions，and the places where it extended to became part ofZhonghua. In modern times，Zhonghuabecame a term denoting China，the Chinese people，and its culture.

引例 Citation：

◎中華者，中國(guó)也。親被王教，自屬中國(guó)，衣冠威儀，習(xí)俗孝悌，居身禮義，故謂之中華。(《唐律名例疏議釋義》)

(中華即中國(guó)。自身接受了王道教化，自然就屬于中國(guó)了，穿衣戴帽有威儀，風(fēng)俗講究孝悌，立身處世追求禮義，所以稱之為中華。)

Zhonghuarefers to China. Under the wise rule of the sage king，all his subjects belong to China. They are dressed in a dignified manner，practice filial piety，love and respect the elderly，and follow moral norms in personal and social conduct.This is the country calledZhonghua. (CommentaryandExplanationonWell-KnownLawCasesoftheTangDynasty)

6.四海

Four Seas

全國(guó)各地或世界各地。古人認(rèn)為中國(guó)的疆域四面環(huán)海，各依方位稱“東?！薄澳虾！薄拔骱！焙汀氨焙！?，合稱“四?！?。它蘊(yùn)含著遠(yuǎn)古中國(guó)人關(guān)于中國(guó)和世界的地理圖景：“九州”居“天下”之中，“天下”由“九州”及其周邊“四海”組成，中國(guó)是“海內(nèi)”，外國(guó)則是“海外”。在古人那里，“四?！贝蠖嘟y(tǒng)指天下，并不確指某個(gè)海域，有時(shí)用來指陸地四周的海，有時(shí)又指“四?！彼h(huán)繞的陸地。

Four Seas refer to the territory of China or the entire world.The ancient Chinese believed that China was a land surrounded by Four Seas—the East，West，North，and South seas.The term suggests what the ancient Chinese conceived to be the map of China and the world：Ninezhou(regions) were located at the center oftianxia(all under heaven).Tianxiaconsisted of ninezhouand its surrounding Four Seas.China was within the Four Seas，while foreign lands were outside the Four Seas.In ancient China，F(xiàn)our Seas referred to all under heaven in most cases，and did not denote a specific body of water.Therefore，the term was used sometimes to mean the seas surrounding the land，and sometimes to specify the land surrounded by the Four Seas.

引例 Citation：

◎君子敬而無失，與人恭而有禮，四海之內(nèi)皆兄弟也。(《論語(yǔ)·顏淵》)

(君子做事態(tài)度認(rèn)真而不出差錯(cuò)，待人謙恭而合乎禮儀，那么天下所有的人都是他的兄弟。)

A man of virtue always does things conscientiously without making any mistakes and treats people respectfully and appropriately. Then all within the Four Seas will be his brothers. (TheAnalects)

7.興象

Xingxiang(Inspiring Imagery)

文學(xué)作品中能夠生發(fā)深遠(yuǎn)意旨和審美情境的物象，是創(chuàng)作者主觀情感與客觀景象完美融合而產(chǎn)生的一種藝術(shù)境界?！芭d”指作者偶然生發(fā)的創(chuàng)作沖動(dòng)，“象”則是指作者在作品中所借助的外在的具體物象?！芭d象”是唐代詩(shī)論家殷璠在《河岳英靈集序》中用來品評(píng)盛唐詩(shī)人作品的用語(yǔ)，后來演變成詩(shī)歌評(píng)論的“興象觀”，用以衡量作品境界的高下。

Inspiring imagery is an artistic achievement of profound literary significance and with great aesthetic taste，obtained through the perfect blending of an author’s feelings with an objective situation or scenery.Xing(興) is an impromptu inspiration of the author，andxiang(象) a material object he borrows from the external world in his writing. Tang-dynasty poetry critic Yin Fan first used the term “inspiring imagery” in his “Preface to A Collection of Poems by Distinguished Poets” in commenting on the works of poets in the golden period of the Tang Dynasty. It later became a standard for assessing the merit of a poetic work.

引例 Citations：

◎既多興象，復(fù)備風(fēng)骨。(殷璠《河岳英靈集序》)

(詩(shī)人的作品既有許多興象，又具備了風(fēng)骨之美。)

These poets’ works feature both inspiring imagery，as well asfenggu(class and integrity). (Yin Fan：Preface toACollectionofPoemsbyDistinguishedPoets)

◎作詩(shī)大要不過二端：體格聲調(diào)、興象風(fēng)神而已。(胡應(yīng)麟《詩(shī)藪》)

(作詩(shī)大體上有兩個(gè)方面：體制與聲律，興象與氣韻。)

Poetry has two basic aspects：one includes form，rhythm，and rhyme；the other includes imagery and charm. (Hu Yinglin：AnIn-DepthExplorationofPoetry)

8.性靈

Xingling(Inner Self)

本指相對(duì)于客觀外物的人的心靈世界，包括性情、才智兩個(gè)方面。南北朝時(shí)期，“性靈”成為文學(xué)創(chuàng)作與文學(xué)批評(píng)術(shù)語(yǔ)，主要指與社會(huì)倫理、政治教化與傳統(tǒng)創(chuàng)作觀念相對(duì)的個(gè)體的精神才智與性情氣質(zhì)，強(qiáng)調(diào)文藝應(yīng)該發(fā)自并表現(xiàn)人的性靈。明清時(shí)期，隨著個(gè)性伸張與思想解放，袁宏道、袁枚等著名文士用“性靈”倡導(dǎo)文學(xué)應(yīng)該直抒胸臆，表現(xiàn)內(nèi)心真實(shí)的思想情感、興趣見解，強(qiáng)調(diào)創(chuàng)作中的精神個(gè)性和藝術(shù)個(gè)性，反對(duì)宋明理學(xué)、傳統(tǒng)創(chuàng)作觀念以及復(fù)古思潮對(duì)于人性與文學(xué)的束縛，并因此成為文學(xué)創(chuàng)作上的一個(gè)重要流派。

The term refers to an individual’s inner mind vis-à-vis the outside world，which consists of two aspects，namely，temperament and talent. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties，xingling(inner self ) became widely used in literary writing and criticism. It refers to the combination of a writer’s temperament and talent，other than his social ethics，political beliefs，and literary traditions；and it stresses that literature is inspired by traits of individuality and should give expression to them. During the Ming and Qing dynasties，along with the trend of giving free rein to individuality and shaking off intellectual straitjacket，renowned scholars such as Yuan Hongdao and Yuan Mei advocated giving full expression to one’s inner self，namely，one’s thoughts，sentiment，emotion and views. They underscored the role of intellectual and artistic individuality in literary creation as opposed to the rigid School of Principle of the earlier Song and Ming dynasties，literary dogma and blind belief in classicism which constrained people from expressing human nature and inhabited literary creativity. TheXinglingSchool thus became an important school in literary creation.

引例 Citations：

◎惟人參之，性靈所鐘，是謂三才。為五行之秀，實(shí)天地之心。心生而言立，言立而文明，自然之道也。(劉勰《文心雕龍·原道》)

(只有人身上鐘聚了性情才智，可以與天地并稱為“三才”。人是天地萬物中最杰出的種類，實(shí)際是天地的核心與靈魂。心靈活動(dòng)產(chǎn)生語(yǔ)言，語(yǔ)言表達(dá)出來就形成文章，這是自然規(guī)律。)

Temperament and talent are found only in man，constituting his inner self. One of the three essential forms of existence along with heaven and earth，man stands out among all species and is the essence and soul of the world. In the natural course of events，the need to express man’s inner self leads to the emergence of language，which in turn gives rise to literary creation. (Liu Xie：TheLiteraryMindandtheCarvingofDragons)

◎(吾弟小修所作之詩(shī))大都獨(dú)抒性靈，不拘格套，非從自己胸臆流出，不肯下筆。(袁宏道《敘小修詩(shī)》)

(吾弟小修所作之詩(shī)大都抒發(fā)自己獨(dú)到的性情，不拘泥于古人的固定模式與套路，如果不是出自本心，絕不肯下筆。)

Most of my brother Xiaoxiu’s poems express his inner self，without being constrained by the rigid patterns and structures of ancient literary writings. He would not commit to paper anything not flowing naturally from his inner world.(Yuan Hongdao：Preface toXiaoxiu’sPoetry)

◎自三百篇至今日，凡詩(shī)之傳者，都是性靈，不關(guān)堆垛。(袁枚《隨園詩(shī)話》卷五)

(從《詩(shī)經(jīng)》到今日，凡是能夠廣泛流傳的詩(shī)歌，都是因?yàn)楸磉_(dá)了自己的性靈，與堆砌辭藻和典故沒有關(guān)系。)

Ever sinceTheBookofSongswas written，all those poems which have remained popular were created to give full expression to the authors’ inner self，instead of being loaded with clichés and classical references. (Yuan Mei：SuiyuanPoetry)