吳現(xiàn)瑞 張宗進(jìn) 蘭平
最新統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)顯示我國結(jié)直腸癌發(fā)病率為23.03/10萬,在女性中位居所有惡性腫瘤的第四位,男性中為第五位,且呈現(xiàn)逐年上升態(tài)勢[1-2]。我國結(jié)直腸癌發(fā)病的一個重要特點(diǎn)是直腸癌的發(fā)病率高于結(jié)腸癌,約占59%~70.1%[3]。目前手術(shù)依然是治療直腸癌最主要的手段之一。盡管吻合器、腔鏡器械和技術(shù)較以往有改善,但隨著局部進(jìn)展期直腸癌術(shù)前新輔助放化療的應(yīng)用和低位、超低位保肛術(shù)式的開展,直腸癌手術(shù)并發(fā)癥并沒有顯著降低。據(jù)文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,直腸癌術(shù)后并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率為20%~30%,其中嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥發(fā)生率為5%~12%、病死率為2%[4]。
一項(xiàng)Meta分析研究表明,直腸癌術(shù)后并發(fā)癥不僅影響病人的短期療效,而且可使病人的總生存時(shí)間受損[5]。因此掌握直腸癌手術(shù)常見并發(fā)癥及治療手段,以減少嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生、降低并發(fā)癥的不良影響,是我們當(dāng)下亟待解決的,也是進(jìn)一步提高直腸癌手術(shù)療效的重要課題。直腸癌手術(shù)并發(fā)癥根據(jù)發(fā)生的時(shí)間可分為術(shù)中和術(shù)后并發(fā)癥,常見術(shù)中并發(fā)癥有出血、膀胱損傷和輸尿管損傷等,術(shù)后常見并發(fā)癥包括吻合口漏、術(shù)后出血、術(shù)后腸梗阻、直腸陰道瘺、吻合口狹窄、直腸前切除綜合征、性功能及排尿功能障礙等[6-7]。本文將重點(diǎn)探討術(shù)中和術(shù)后常見并發(fā)癥的原因和處理方法。
1.意外出血 直腸癌術(shù)中意外出血常見于腸系膜下動靜脈及分支、髂內(nèi)動靜脈及分支和骶前靜脈叢損傷[8-9]。術(shù)者經(jīng)驗(yàn)不足、血管解剖認(rèn)識不夠、手術(shù)野暴露不充分、盲目分離和操作是導(dǎo)致血管損傷的主要原因。直腸癌手術(shù)中需要處理的血管主要是腸系膜下血管及分支,掌握腸系膜下血管及分支解剖,術(shù)中密切配合,通過牽拉血管蒂,充分顯露腸系膜下動脈、腸系膜下靜脈及腹主動脈的位置,小心解剖,可有效減少血管損傷的概率[10]。髂內(nèi)動靜脈及分支損傷較少見[11],多由于粘連嚴(yán)重、解剖層次不清及盲目分離導(dǎo)致。腸系膜血管及分支、髂內(nèi)血管及分支損傷后需迅速暴露視野,可壓迫或夾持血管盡快控制出血點(diǎn),然后根據(jù)受損血管的粗細(xì)考慮選擇電凝、鈦夾、超聲刀、可吸收夾或直接縫扎進(jìn)行止血,若行腹腔鏡手術(shù)止血困難,需果斷中轉(zhuǎn)開腹[10]。骶前靜脈叢大出血是直腸癌手術(shù)的嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥,處理不當(dāng)可危及生命。既往研究報(bào)道發(fā)生率為0.2%~8.6%,行經(jīng)腹會陰聯(lián)合切除術(shù)和術(shù)前放化療增加骶前靜脈叢出血風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[12-13]。骶前靜脈是由兩條骶外側(cè)靜脈和骶正中靜脈相互交聯(lián)形成的靜脈網(wǎng),最易出血的區(qū)域是下骶骨區(qū),此處Waldeyer筋膜較厚,直接與骶前筋膜相連,分離不當(dāng)極易損傷。若出現(xiàn)骶前靜脈叢出血,首先應(yīng)穩(wěn)定情緒,立即用紗塊壓迫止血,避免盲目鉗夾或縫扎止血。然后充分顯露骶前區(qū)域,根據(jù)情況使用止血紗布粘貼法、紗布填塞法、圖釘釘壓法、骨蠟填塞止血法等止血,同時(shí)需做好生命體征監(jiān)測,必要時(shí)予輸注紅細(xì)胞。若止血困難,從損傷控制角度可暫時(shí)采取大量紗塊填塞止血,盡快結(jié)束手術(shù)[14-17]。
2.膀胱損傷 膀胱是進(jìn)展期直腸癌經(jīng)常累及的器官之一。一項(xiàng)納入958例直腸癌病人的前瞻性研究顯示,約11.6%的病人術(shù)前影像檢查提示累及膀胱,而行膀胱部分或全部切除病人的術(shù)后病理檢查提示46%為炎性粘連、54%為腫瘤浸潤[18]。多項(xiàng)研究表明術(shù)前可疑侵犯膀胱的病人術(shù)后病理證實(shí)腫瘤浸潤的比例大約為40%~60%[19-20]。對于確證存在膀胱浸潤者,術(shù)后復(fù)發(fā)和遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)顯著增高,其中切緣陽性者5年生存率僅為27%[18]。術(shù)前和術(shù)中如何準(zhǔn)確判斷膀胱為腫瘤浸潤還是炎性粘連以及手術(shù)過程中保證切緣陰性是結(jié)直腸外科醫(yī)生經(jīng)常面對的問題。CT在鑒別是腫瘤直接侵犯還是炎性粘連方面欠佳,部分研究者提出MRI和膀胱鏡檢查可能增加準(zhǔn)確性,但仍需要進(jìn)一步研究。當(dāng)腫瘤和膀胱無明顯關(guān)系時(shí),術(shù)中膀胱損傷概率一般不高于0.5%[21],術(shù)野暴露清楚多可避免。
3.輸尿管損傷 文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道結(jié)直腸癌手術(shù)中輸尿管損傷發(fā)生率為0.2%~1.0%[22],其中,90%的損傷發(fā)生在輸尿管遠(yuǎn)端[23],常由暴力牽拉鉗夾或能量器械直接損傷導(dǎo)致[24]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)輸尿管損傷和T分期較晚、肥胖、盆腔粘連、局部復(fù)發(fā)二次手術(shù)、術(shù)前放化療等因素相關(guān),腹腔鏡手術(shù)是否增加輸尿管損傷概率存在爭議[25]。術(shù)前作好評估是避免輸尿管損傷的基本措施,若風(fēng)險(xiǎn)較高,手術(shù)開始前可放置輸尿管支架指引,降低風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[26-27]。約1%的病人置入支架后可導(dǎo)致輸尿管損傷,因此部分研究者建議采用靜脈注射靛藍(lán)染料、亞甲藍(lán)使輸尿管顯色以在術(shù)中顯露,但其臨床價(jià)值需要進(jìn)一步論證[23,28]。若術(shù)中出現(xiàn)輸尿管損傷,需泌尿外科會診評估損傷程度,根據(jù)情況采取一期修補(bǔ)、雙J管置入、輸尿管膀胱再植等措施[27,29]。輸尿管損傷的治療效果與發(fā)現(xiàn)的時(shí)間密切相關(guān),發(fā)現(xiàn)越早,治療效果越好。研究表明約60%輸尿管損傷可在術(shù)中發(fā)現(xiàn)并處理,術(shù)后若病人出現(xiàn)腰痛、腹痛、發(fā)熱、引流液增多且清亮等情況需要警惕輸尿管損傷可能[21,25]。
1.吻合口漏 吻合口漏是直腸癌術(shù)后令外科醫(yī)生頭痛的并發(fā)癥,文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道其發(fā)生率為3%~21%。直腸癌術(shù)后約76%的病人再次手術(shù)的原因是吻合口漏[30],且發(fā)生吻合口漏的病人其病死率高,為3%~22%[31]。引起吻合口漏發(fā)生的因素很多,術(shù)前危險(xiǎn)因素包括男性、美國麻醉醫(yī)師協(xié)會(ASA)分級>2級、腎臟疾病、術(shù)前合并癥、既往有放療病史及部分腫瘤特征(低位或進(jìn)展期直腸癌、直徑大于3 cm腸癌)、吸煙、肥胖、營養(yǎng)狀況差、過度飲酒、應(yīng)用免疫抑制劑或貝伐單抗。術(shù)中危險(xiǎn)因素包括失血量大或輸血、手術(shù)時(shí)間長于4 h。預(yù)防性造口可減輕吻合口漏的嚴(yán)重程度,但并不能降低吻合口漏的發(fā)生率[32]。吻合口漏的發(fā)生可顯著增加病人疾病負(fù)荷、延長住院時(shí)間、增加住院費(fèi)用,是否影響病人長期生存目前仍存有爭議[5,33-36]。術(shù)前充分評估吻合口漏發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)并糾正可控性危險(xiǎn)因素,術(shù)中安全操作,確保無張力吻合及良好的血供可減少吻合口漏的發(fā)生。部分研究表明術(shù)前機(jī)械腸道準(zhǔn)備和口服抗生素也可降低吻合口漏發(fā)生概率[37-38]。目前吻合口漏的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)尚未統(tǒng)一,除了根據(jù)臨床表現(xiàn)及腹腔引流液性質(zhì)外,CT是最常使用的影像學(xué)評估手段,術(shù)后第3~5天的C反應(yīng)蛋白水平超過150 mg/L和降鈣素原顯著升高也是提示吻合口漏的重要指標(biāo)[39]。國際直腸癌研究小組將吻合口漏分為A、B、C三個等級,吻合口漏的治療可根據(jù)其嚴(yán)重程度選擇相應(yīng)的方案[40-41]。A級:術(shù)后常無特殊臨床癥狀及體征,僅在造口閉合前行影像學(xué)檢查時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn),可能導(dǎo)致造口閉合延遲,對術(shù)后治療無明顯影響;B級:病人腹膜炎的臨床表現(xiàn)常不典型或較局限,這類病人僅需抗感染及局部引流;C級:病人有明顯腹膜刺激征和其他腹腔感染的臨床表現(xiàn),嚴(yán)重者可出現(xiàn)糞性腹膜炎,常需急診手術(shù)干預(yù)。二次手術(shù)強(qiáng)行縫合漏口往往不能成功,徹底引流并行臨時(shí)性末段回腸造口或行Hartmann術(shù)是安全可靠的選擇[6]。
2.術(shù)后出血 直腸癌術(shù)后出血常見于吻合口出血,國內(nèi)外文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道吻合口出血發(fā)生率為0.3%~6.5%[42-44],可發(fā)生在術(shù)后數(shù)小時(shí)至術(shù)后7 d左右,多見于術(shù)后24 h內(nèi)[42],表現(xiàn)為經(jīng)肛門排出鮮紅色血便。全身性因素和局部因素均可導(dǎo)致吻合口出血,全身性因素如女性月經(jīng)期、凝血異常、口服抗凝藥物、高血壓等,常見的局部因素包括腸管處理不當(dāng)、局部充血腫脹、黏膜撕裂、吻合口張力過大、吻合器使用不當(dāng)?shù)萚45]。術(shù)前盡量消除全身性因素,術(shù)中細(xì)致操作,確切吻合,避免局部不利因素,可降低術(shù)后吻合口出血風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。發(fā)生吻合口出血時(shí),應(yīng)根據(jù)出血部位、出血量和病人的情況采取恰當(dāng)?shù)奶幚泶胧?。若出血量不大,病人一般情況良好,可先進(jìn)行靜脈給予止血藥、輸血和經(jīng)肛門腎上腺素冰鹽水、凝血酶原灌腸等保守治療。若出血量較大,血紅蛋白進(jìn)行性下降,應(yīng)當(dāng)機(jī)立斷采取內(nèi)鏡下止血。內(nèi)鏡下止血通常能取得良好效果,但結(jié)腸鏡檢查時(shí)需充氣、進(jìn)鏡,存在誘發(fā)吻合口漏的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[44]。若吻合口位置較低,也可選擇行麻醉下經(jīng)肛門縫扎止血。經(jīng)上述治療無效,必要時(shí)應(yīng)行剖腹探查止血[45]。
3.腸梗阻 腸梗阻是腹部手術(shù)后常見的并發(fā)癥,主要由腹部腸管和手術(shù)創(chuàng)面粘連導(dǎo)致,表現(xiàn)為術(shù)后病人開始進(jìn)食后出現(xiàn)持續(xù)的腹脹、腹痛、惡心、嘔吐,肛門或造口無排氣排便,腹部平片多可見液氣平面[46]。一項(xiàng)納入18 983例病人的Meta研究表明術(shù)后腸梗阻的發(fā)生率為10.3%[47]。術(shù)后腸梗阻發(fā)生的危險(xiǎn)因素包括男性、高齡(年齡超過70歲)、吸煙、腹部手術(shù)史、開腹手術(shù)、腹腔感染、手術(shù)時(shí)間長等[46,48],而術(shù)前采取機(jī)械腸道準(zhǔn)備和口服抗生素,早期腸內(nèi)營養(yǎng)可減少術(shù)后腸梗阻的發(fā)生[38,49]。術(shù)后早期出現(xiàn)的腸梗阻絕大部分通過去除誘因、禁食、胃腸減壓、維持內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)定、止痛等對癥支持治療逐漸緩解,大約6%的病人需要再次手術(shù)解除梗阻,恢復(fù)消化道的通暢性[30,50]。
4.直腸陰道瘺 直腸陰道瘺是女性直腸癌病人術(shù)后嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥之一,文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道發(fā)生率為0.9%~9.9%[51-52]。術(shù)前放化療、腫瘤位于直腸前壁、高T分期、術(shù)中吻合器使用不當(dāng)、側(cè)方淋巴結(jié)清掃、吻合口漏等是直腸陰道瘺發(fā)生的危險(xiǎn)因素[52]。術(shù)中提高警惕,仔細(xì)處理直腸前壁,規(guī)范使用吻合器,避免損傷陰道后壁,是預(yù)防直腸陰道瘺的重要手段。直腸陰道瘺的治療包括手術(shù)治療和非手術(shù)治療,非手術(shù)治療包括局部沖洗、膿腫引流、抗感染、控制大便等。手術(shù)治療措施主要是糞便轉(zhuǎn)流,行結(jié)腸或回腸造口術(shù),根據(jù)情況術(shù)中予結(jié)腸灌洗,減少肛門糞便排出,為缺損愈合提供條件,一般平均愈合時(shí)間為10個月[6,51]。一些研究表明自體膨脹支架置入齒狀線上方,保護(hù)瘺口同樣能取得較好治療效果[53-54]。直腸癌術(shù)后直腸陰道瘺早期不主張直接修補(bǔ),尤其是合并感染時(shí)修補(bǔ)成功率較低。治療性轉(zhuǎn)流造口或者自體膨脹支架置入肛管增加瘺口愈合機(jī)會,即使不能完全愈合,瘺口縮小,局部感染消除,可增加手術(shù)修補(bǔ)的成功率。
5.吻合口狹窄 吻合口狹窄是直腸癌術(shù)后常見并發(fā)癥之一,既往研究表明吻合口狹窄發(fā)生率大約為3%~30%[55]。無預(yù)防性造口的病人主要表現(xiàn)為排便困難,不完全性腸梗阻。預(yù)防性造口的病人多在術(shù)后輔助治療或擬行造口回納時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)。吻合口狹窄的發(fā)生和術(shù)前放療、吻合口漏、盆腔感染、預(yù)防性造口、吻合器使用相關(guān)[55-56]。發(fā)現(xiàn)吻合口狹窄時(shí)首先要排除吻合口腫瘤復(fù)發(fā),良性吻合口狹窄多能通過手法擴(kuò)張、內(nèi)鏡下球囊擴(kuò)張或支架植入等方法治療,若狹窄嚴(yán)重,上述方法治療效果不佳,也可直接手術(shù)切除吻合口,再次吻合或永久性造口[56-57]。
6.直腸前切除綜合征 隨著低位、超低位保肛術(shù)式的開展,直腸癌病人行永久造口的比例在下降,而出現(xiàn)排便功能改變者逐漸增多。直腸前切除綜合征是直腸切除術(shù)后由于結(jié)構(gòu)改變、括約肌及支配神經(jīng)損傷、肛管感覺減退、直腸容積降低以及直腸排糞反射下降等多種因素引起,以便急、便頻和大便失禁等為主要表現(xiàn),少部分病人也可出現(xiàn)便秘或排糞困難等癥狀。無論嚴(yán)重程度,文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道直腸前切除綜合征發(fā)生率高,約為34.8%~90%[58-59]。女性、術(shù)前放療、預(yù)防性造口、高齡、低位直腸等是直腸前切除綜合征的危險(xiǎn)因素。腫瘤位置越低,前切除綜合征的發(fā)生率和嚴(yán)重程度越高。前切除綜合征目前缺乏有效的治療手段,術(shù)前評估高危因素,術(shù)中注意保護(hù)神經(jīng)及選擇合適的吻合方式[58],可一定程度降低該并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生。鼓勵病人術(shù)后自主收縮鍛煉括約肌,對改善大便失禁具有一定幫助[60]。近年來部分研究顯示5-羥色胺受體阻斷劑、骶神經(jīng)刺激和生物反饋治療對改善前切除綜合征有一定的效果,但仍需高質(zhì)量的研究證實(shí)其有效性[58,61]。
7.排尿功能和性功能障礙 排尿功能和性功能障礙是直腸癌術(shù)后常見并發(fā)癥之一,隨著保留盆腔自主神經(jīng)的全直腸系膜切除術(shù)的開展,其發(fā)生率較前有所下降。研究顯示排尿功能障礙發(fā)生率為30%~70%;性功能障礙由于評估標(biāo)準(zhǔn)差別較大,文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道發(fā)生率為5%~90%。一項(xiàng)來自荷蘭的研究表明直腸癌術(shù)后女性性功能障礙發(fā)生率為62%,男性勃起功能障礙和射精障礙發(fā)生率分別為80%和72%[62]。國內(nèi)的研究數(shù)據(jù)顯示排尿功能和性功能障礙發(fā)生率為0~12%和10%~35%[63]。排尿功能障礙主要表現(xiàn)為尿急、尿頻、尿潴留、壓力性尿失禁、充盈性尿失禁,男性性功能障礙表現(xiàn)為勃起功能障礙和射精障礙,女性性功能障礙表現(xiàn)為性欲減退、性交困難、疼痛及陰道潤滑功能降低等。術(shù)中盆腔自主神經(jīng)損傷是導(dǎo)致排尿功能和性功能障礙的主要原因,因此熟悉盆腔自主神經(jīng)解剖,避免損傷神經(jīng)或降低損傷程度是減少性功能障礙發(fā)生的重要措施。一項(xiàng)Meta分析顯示腹腔鏡手術(shù)在排尿功能和性功能保護(hù)方面較開腹并無明顯優(yōu)勢[64]。術(shù)中使用神經(jīng)刺激技術(shù)或神經(jīng)檢測裝置識別自主神經(jīng)對于加強(qiáng)神經(jīng)保護(hù)具有一定價(jià)值[65]。術(shù)后性功能障礙的治療比較困難,目前尚無有效的方法。術(shù)后加強(qiáng)盆底肌肉鍛煉是改善排尿障礙的首選方法,研究顯示骶神經(jīng)刺激也能在一定程度改善排尿癥狀,其普適性需進(jìn)一步探討。術(shù)后早期使用磷酸二酯酶-5抑制劑能改善87%病人的勃起功能,但其發(fā)揮良好效果仍需相對完整的自主神經(jīng),部分研究顯示神經(jīng)移植術(shù)能進(jìn)一步提高男性性功能改善程度,其他治療方式包括睪酮替代、心理咨詢等。女性性功能障礙的治療研究相對較少,少量研究提示使用潤滑劑、雌激素、心理咨詢等有一定的療效[62]。
近年來,隨著直腸癌綜合治療理念的深入和手術(shù)規(guī)范的建立,直腸癌的療效已取得顯著的提升,但伴隨的手術(shù)并發(fā)癥、功能障礙和生活質(zhì)量的下降仍然需要外科醫(yī)生重視。嚴(yán)格把握手術(shù)指征,兼顧腫瘤根治原則和功能保護(hù),預(yù)防和減少并發(fā)癥的發(fā)生,有利于改善手術(shù)的短期和長期療效,將進(jìn)一步提高我國直腸癌治療水平。
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