浙江中醫(yī)藥大學(xué)附屬第一醫(yī)院消化內(nèi)科 浙江省消化道疾病病理生理重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室
國家中醫(yī)藥管理局高水平中醫(yī)藥重點(diǎn)學(xué)科(中醫(yī)脾胃病學(xué))(310006)
摘要 自身免疫性胃炎(AIG)是一種由自身免疫功能異常所致的胃炎,臨床常表現(xiàn)為惡性貧血或神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀,內(nèi)鏡下通??梢娢阁w黏膜萎縮,可伴有血清抗壁細(xì)胞抗體和(或)抗內(nèi)因子抗體陽性。有研究表明,AIG是胃神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌瘤和胃癌的危險(xiǎn)因素,因此內(nèi)鏡下診斷并隨訪監(jiān)測AIG至關(guān)重要。本文就AIG與胃腫瘤的研究進(jìn)展作一綜述。
關(guān)鍵詞 自身免疫性胃炎; 胃神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌瘤; 胃腫瘤; 診斷; 治療
Progress of Research on Autoimmune Gastritis and Gastric Tumor LI Mengyun, MENG Lina. Department of Gastroenterology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Key Laboratory of Digestive Pathophysiology of Zhejiang Province, Key Discipline of High?Level Traditional Chinese Medicine of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM Spleen and Gastroenterology), Hangzhou (310006)
Correspondence to: MENG Lina, Email: mln6713@163.com
Abstract Autoimmune gastritis (AIG) is a kind of gastritis caused by autoimmune dysfunction. It is often manifested as pernicious anemia or neurological symptoms. Gastric corpus mucosal atrophy is usually observed under endoscopy, which may be accompanied by positive serum anti?parietal cell antibody and/or anti?intrinsic factor antibody. Studies have shown that AIG is a risk factor for gastric neuroendocrine tumors and gastric cancer. Therefore, endoscopic diagnosis and surveillance of AIG are very important. This article reviewed the progress of research on AIG and gastric tumor.
Key words Autoimmune Gastritis; Gastric Neuroendocrine Tumors; Stomach Neoplasms; Diagnosis; Therapy
自身免疫性胃炎(autoimmune gastritis, AIG)即A型胃炎,是一種由自身免疫功能異常所致的胃炎,內(nèi)鏡下主要表現(xiàn)為以胃體為主的萎縮性胃炎,伴有抗壁細(xì)胞抗體(parietal cell antibody, PCA)和(或)抗內(nèi)因子抗體(intrinsic factor antibody, IFA)陽性。臨床常表現(xiàn)為缺鐵性貧血、惡性貧血或神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀。既往多項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),AIG是胃神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌瘤(gastric neuroendocrine tumors, g?NETs)和胃癌的危險(xiǎn)因素[1?3]。本文就AIG與胃腫瘤的研究進(jìn)展作一綜述。
一、AIG的發(fā)病機(jī)制和診斷
目前AIG發(fā)病機(jī)制的研究大多源于實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)P?,確切的病因尚不清楚,但可能與T細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的自身免疫、抗體介導(dǎo)的體液免疫和幽門螺桿菌(Helicobacter pylori, Hp)感染有關(guān)。目前研究認(rèn)為,特異性Th1細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的自身免疫作用于胃底和胃體的質(zhì)子泵,引起局部炎癥反應(yīng),通過穿孔素、Fas及其受體相互作用,破壞質(zhì)子泵,誘導(dǎo)胃壁細(xì)胞丟失和死亡。同時(shí)AIG產(chǎn)生的自身抗體PCA也通過識別質(zhì)子泵的α和β亞基,造成胃壁細(xì)胞破壞,胃體腺萎縮,胃泌酸功能明顯降低甚至無酸,最后發(fā)展成自身免疫性萎縮性胃炎[4?5]。
在日本一項(xiàng)包括245例AIG患者的多中心研究[6]中,AIG的Hp陽性率為7.8%。另一項(xiàng)研究[7]發(fā)現(xiàn),404例接受Hp根除治療的患者中約10%最終診斷為AIG。但Hp在AIG發(fā)生、發(fā)展過程中的作用仍存在爭議。部分研究認(rèn)為Hp感染觸發(fā)了抗原免疫反應(yīng),使壁細(xì)胞受損逐漸萎縮而失去功能[8]。Kotera等[9]報(bào)道了1例AIG患者,在根除Hp感染26個(gè)月后內(nèi)鏡復(fù)查示胃體黏膜萎縮明顯改善,同時(shí)胃底腺壁細(xì)胞和主細(xì)胞的組織病理學(xué)恢復(fù),血清胃泌素水平和PCA滴度下降。Ihara等[10]探討了2例既往有長期Hp感染而最終診斷為AIG的病例,認(rèn)為部分AIG可能起源于長期存在的Hp感染性胃炎。而Ihara等[11]報(bào)道的另1例合并Hp感染的AIG病例,在Hp根除治療后內(nèi)鏡隨訪3年發(fā)現(xiàn)胃萎縮程度較前明顯加重,木村?竹本分類從O?2進(jìn)展為O?4(O?p),認(rèn)為根除Hp可能加速了AIG的發(fā)展。De Block等[12]對88例1型糖尿病患者進(jìn)行AIG篩查,結(jié)果顯示Hp感染并不是AIG的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素。目前,Hp感染在AIG中的作用和機(jī)制仍未明確,Hp感染可能是部分AIG的始發(fā)因素。
目前我國尚缺乏統(tǒng)一的AIG診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。日本AIG的最新診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為內(nèi)鏡檢查和(或)組織學(xué)檢查結(jié)果符合AIG的要求,且胃自身抗體包括抗PCA和(或)抗IFA陽性[13]。AIG特征性內(nèi)鏡表現(xiàn)為明顯胃體黏膜萎縮,可見顯著的黏膜血管,而在胃竇部未見萎縮或僅有輕度萎縮,該模式與Hp誘導(dǎo)的萎縮性胃炎相反,因此被稱為“逆萎縮”。此外,AIG的內(nèi)鏡表現(xiàn)多樣,包括渾濁黏液附著、白球征、增生性息肉、泌酸黏膜假性息肉、斑片狀發(fā)紅等[6,13]。對于內(nèi)鏡下表現(xiàn)木村?竹本分類≥O?3的重度萎縮需要格外關(guān)注,Kishikawa等[14]發(fā)現(xiàn)此現(xiàn)象是AIG的有效預(yù)測因子。日本另一項(xiàng)多中心研究[6]結(jié)果顯示AIG中木村?竹本分類為O?4(O?p)是最常見的胃萎縮類型。AIG組織病理學(xué)可表現(xiàn)為胃底、胃體黏膜漿細(xì)胞和淋巴細(xì)胞浸潤,腺體萎縮性改變,壁細(xì)胞和主細(xì)胞丟失,出現(xiàn)假幽門腺化生或解痙多肽表達(dá)化生(spasmolytic polypep?tide expressing metaplasia, SPEM),以及腸嗜鉻樣細(xì)胞(entero?chromaffin?like cell, ECL細(xì)胞)增生[15]。同時(shí)檢測PCA、IFA、血清胃泌素、胃蛋白酶原和胃酸分泌水平,有助于診斷AIG。
AIG早期無明顯癥狀,中晚期AIG患者往往因鐵或維生素B12缺乏而發(fā)生貧血或神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)癥狀。AIG還常合并其他自身免疫病,其中1型糖尿病和自身免疫性甲狀腺炎較為常見,其他還包括類風(fēng)濕關(guān)節(jié)炎、系統(tǒng)性紅斑狼瘡、乳糜瀉、自身免疫性肝炎、強(qiáng)直性脊柱炎等[16]。
二、AIG與g?NETs
研究表明,胃神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤(gastric neuroendocrine neoplasms, g?NENs)約占所有神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤的7%[17],約占所有胃腫瘤的1%[18]。g?NETs可分為3型,與AIG相關(guān)的g?NETs主要為1型g?NETs[19],其是在AIG的發(fā)病基礎(chǔ)上,引起ECL細(xì)胞增生而導(dǎo)致的一種生長緩慢但復(fù)發(fā)率高的腫瘤。由于AIG胃酸分泌缺乏,引起高胃泌素血癥,刺激組胺釋放,導(dǎo)致ECL細(xì)胞大量增生。1型g?NETs在內(nèi)鏡下多表現(xiàn)為胃體或胃底多發(fā)息肉樣病灶或黏膜下腫物,直徑多為5~8 mm,形態(tài)不規(guī)則,多伴有紅斑或中央凹陷,且胃底和胃體黏膜常呈萎縮性胃炎改變[20]。大多數(shù)1型g?NETs為G1期腫瘤,轉(zhuǎn)移風(fēng)險(xiǎn)低,預(yù)后較好[19]。
我國一項(xiàng)系統(tǒng)性評價(jià)發(fā)現(xiàn)AIG患者中1型g?NETs的發(fā)病率約為0.83%/人年[21]。另一項(xiàng)回顧性研究[22]發(fā)現(xiàn)在1型g?NETs患者中AIG的比例高達(dá)80.6%,PCA陽性率達(dá)78.5%,IFA陽性率為51.9%,血清胃泌素水平多超過正常值上限的2倍。Fossmark等[23]介紹了1例1型g?NETs和印戒細(xì)胞癌共存于AIG患者的病例,這種聯(lián)合腫瘤的發(fā)生提示了g?NETs與印戒細(xì)胞癌可能具有共同的起源,但仍需進(jìn)一步研究。
三、AIG與胃癌
近來,研究發(fā)現(xiàn)AIG與胃癌關(guān)系密切,但確切的癌癥風(fēng)險(xiǎn)仍在探討中。一項(xiàng)來自歐洲的meta分析發(fā)現(xiàn),惡性貧血患者的總體胃癌相對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)為6.8(95% CI:2.6~18.1)[24]。我國一項(xiàng)系統(tǒng)性評價(jià)結(jié)果顯示,AIG患者胃癌的發(fā)病率為0.14%/人年,胃癌的相對風(fēng)險(xiǎn)為11.05,合并胃低度異型增生發(fā)病率為0.52%/人年[21]。在日本一項(xiàng)為期5年關(guān)于早期胃癌伴AIG的回顧性研究[25]中,325例胃癌患者中AIG的患病率約為7.4%;且與對照組相比,AIG組女性患者更多見,隆起型、體積較大、乳頭狀瘤和位于胃上方的腫瘤更多。德國一項(xiàng)包含572例患者的多中心病例對照研究[26]發(fā)現(xiàn)4.9%的胃癌患者伴有AIG,惡性貧血是其主要的臨床表現(xiàn),且在AIG患者中以近端胃癌多見。此外,患有AIG的胃癌患者遠(yuǎn)處轉(zhuǎn)移較為少見,5年生存率更高,這可能是由于部分惡性貧血患者行內(nèi)鏡檢查較早發(fā)現(xiàn)了AIG和胃癌,從而進(jìn)行早期干預(yù)。因此,對惡性貧血患者應(yīng)予胃鏡和AIG相關(guān)檢查,確診AIG后應(yīng)定期監(jiān)測,對可疑病灶行精查胃鏡以發(fā)現(xiàn)早期胃癌。此外,日本學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)了2例罕見的AIG伴胃底腺型胃腺癌的病例[27?28]。也有病例報(bào)道了與AIG相關(guān)的混合性神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌?非神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤(mixed neuroendocrine?non?neuroendocrine neoplasms, MiNEN)[29],其由腺癌和神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤組成。研究表明,與單純胃腺癌和神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌癌患者相比,MiNEN患者的預(yù)后可能更差[30]。
AIG患者發(fā)生胃癌的原因可能與高胃泌素血癥相關(guān)。Murphy等[31]在一項(xiàng)長達(dá)數(shù)十年隨訪的前瞻性研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)高胃泌素血癥患者胃癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加。挪威一項(xiàng)包括78 962例患者的隊(duì)列研究[32]顯示,高胃泌素血癥與胃腺癌的總體風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加有關(guān),特別是近端(胃底和胃體)胃腺癌,而與遠(yuǎn)端胃腺癌無關(guān)。另一項(xiàng)挪威研究[33]發(fā)現(xiàn)胃體腺癌患者的中位血清胃泌素濃度是胃竇部胃癌患者的三倍,高胃泌素血癥胃癌主要發(fā)生在胃體部,且與胃體腺癌患者的生存期較短有關(guān)。目前胃泌素在胃癌中的確切作用尚不清楚。有證據(jù)表明,胃泌素可能通過改變關(guān)鍵的細(xì)胞途徑(包括細(xì)胞增殖、凋亡、遷移、組織重塑和血管生成)來影響各種上皮化生和淋巴系統(tǒng)胃惡性腫瘤的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[34]。也有研究[35]發(fā)現(xiàn),胃泌素誘導(dǎo)的miR?222可通過抑制p27kip1來促進(jìn)胃腫瘤的發(fā)展。說明miR?222有望成為一種新的生物學(xué)標(biāo)志物,用于監(jiān)測胃泌素誘導(dǎo)的胃癌前病變。
Nguyen等[36]使用AIG的T細(xì)胞受體轉(zhuǎn)基因小鼠模型研究了AIG與胃癌之間的潛在聯(lián)系。該研究中的小鼠模型可模擬人類疾病,經(jīng)歷了一系列階段,包括炎癥、萎縮性胃炎、黏液頸細(xì)胞增生和SPEM,隨著時(shí)間的推移進(jìn)展為異型增生和腫瘤,為AIG發(fā)展為胃腫瘤提供了一個(gè)直接證據(jù)。此外,Noto等[37]采用AIG小鼠模型研究白細(xì)胞介素(IL)?13在胃癌中的作用,發(fā)現(xiàn)慢性胃炎時(shí)IL?13直接作用于胃上皮細(xì)胞促進(jìn)上皮化生。Bockerstett等[38]發(fā)現(xiàn)缺乏IL?27的AIG小鼠較對照組小鼠更易發(fā)生嚴(yán)重的胃炎、萎縮和SPEM,表明IL?27有助于抑制AIG小鼠的胃萎縮和腸化生。此外,IL?10、IL?17、IL?21、干擾素(IFN)?γ等細(xì)胞因子均與AIG進(jìn)展為胃癌相關(guān)[39]。由此可見,細(xì)胞因子在AIG進(jìn)展為胃癌過程中可能起重要作用,未來也許可將細(xì)胞因子作為關(guān)鍵靶點(diǎn)用于AIG的治療。
但也有學(xué)者提出不一樣的觀點(diǎn)。Arai等[40]認(rèn)為根據(jù)組織學(xué)分析結(jié)果,AIG患者的癌癥風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可能低于Hp相關(guān)胃炎患者。Rugge等[41]一項(xiàng)平均隨訪7.5年的前瞻性研究發(fā)現(xiàn),除甲狀腺癌外,211例無Hp感染的AIG患者中并未觀察到胃部或其他惡性腫瘤的超額風(fēng)險(xiǎn),因此AIG并不會增加胃癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),AIG患者報(bào)告的胃癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)過高可能是由未識別的既往或當(dāng)前Hp感染所引起。綜上所述,大部分研究認(rèn)為AIG與胃癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加有關(guān),尤其是胃體部胃癌,但潛在危險(xiǎn)因素和具體機(jī)制需要基礎(chǔ)實(shí)驗(yàn)和臨床研究來進(jìn)一步證實(shí)。
四、治療和監(jiān)測
目前,尚無針對AIG的特效治療方法。應(yīng)采取對癥措施以減輕相關(guān)癥狀,包括補(bǔ)充鐵和維生素B12以及治療非特異性胃腸道癥狀。我國專家共識提出1型g?NETs患者首選內(nèi)鏡下治療并定期隨訪,內(nèi)鏡下治療應(yīng)結(jié)合腫瘤的大小、浸潤深度、分型、分化程度等因素決定。對于lt;1 cm的多發(fā)腫瘤,經(jīng)活檢證實(shí)后可行內(nèi)鏡下切除或隨訪觀察(長徑lt;0.5 cm);對≥1 cm的g?NENs,應(yīng)行超聲內(nèi)鏡檢查,根據(jù)浸潤深度和淋巴結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)移情況決定內(nèi)鏡下切除還是外科手術(shù)切除[19]。對于多發(fā)性、內(nèi)鏡切除后反復(fù)發(fā)生的1型g?NETs患者可考慮使用生長抑素類似物,其具有抑制胃泌素和抗腫瘤增殖的雙重作用。有研究表明,采用生長抑素類似物進(jìn)行長期治療是一種可行的選擇[42?43],但仍然需要更多基礎(chǔ)和臨床試驗(yàn)以提供科學(xué)證據(jù)。
AIG延遲診斷較多見,有研究報(bào)道AIG總體診斷延遲時(shí)間中位數(shù)為14個(gè)月[44]。大部分研究表明,AIG發(fā)生胃癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加,而早期發(fā)現(xiàn)和治療胃癌的5年生存率能超過90%,因此對于AIG早發(fā)現(xiàn)、早診斷以及隨訪監(jiān)測至關(guān)重要。目前AIG的最佳監(jiān)測間隔尚不清楚,2019年歐洲指南建議對AIG患者每3~5年進(jìn)行1次內(nèi)鏡檢查[45],并且有必要進(jìn)行個(gè)體評估。我國指南提出對于涉及胃體的萎縮性胃炎,推薦每1~3年進(jìn)行1次內(nèi)鏡檢查[46]。此外,新診斷為惡性貧血且近期未進(jìn)行內(nèi)鏡檢查的患者應(yīng)進(jìn)行內(nèi)鏡下活檢,以確認(rèn)胃體為主的萎縮性胃炎,并進(jìn)行風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分層,排除常見的胃腫瘤。如果既往診斷并切除g?NETs者,則應(yīng)每1~2年進(jìn)行1次隨訪內(nèi)鏡檢查,具體取決于g?NETs的情況[47]。
五、總結(jié)與展望
總之,AIG是一種由T細(xì)胞和自身抗體介導(dǎo)的慢性自身免疫性炎癥性疾病,目前,尚無預(yù)防和根治方法,治療措施主要為對癥處理。大部分研究表明,AIG增加了1型g?NETs和胃癌的發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn),這可能與AIG導(dǎo)致的高胃泌素血癥有關(guān)。因此需要制定合理的內(nèi)鏡隨訪計(jì)劃來有效監(jiān)測AIG。內(nèi)鏡醫(yī)師需要重點(diǎn)關(guān)注胃體萎縮的表現(xiàn),尤其是臨床表現(xiàn)為惡性貧血或木村?竹本分類≥O?3的重度萎縮患者,應(yīng)結(jié)合組織病理學(xué)和血清學(xué)標(biāo)志進(jìn)行診斷。對于AIG患者,應(yīng)制定監(jiān)測隨訪計(jì)劃,復(fù)查內(nèi)鏡時(shí)注意有無息肉樣增生和早期胃癌表現(xiàn),綜合評估癌癥風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。未來,還需對AIG與胃腫瘤的關(guān)系和發(fā)生機(jī)制作進(jìn)一步深入研究。
參考文獻(xiàn)
[ 1 ] LANDGREN A M, LANDGREN O, GRIDLEY G, et al. Autoimmune disease and subsequent risk of developing alimentary tract cancers among 4.5 million US male veterans[J]. Cancer, 2011, 117 (6): 1163?1171.
[ 2 ] MURPHY G, DAWSEY S M, ENGELS E A, et al. Cancer risk after pernicious anemia in the US elderly population[J]. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2015, 13 (13): 2282?2289. e1?4.
[ 3 ] VANOLI A, LA ROSA S, LUINETTI O, et al. Histologic changes in type A chronic atrophic gastritis indicating increased risk of neuroendocrine tumor development: the predictive role of dysplastic and severely hyperplastic enterochromaffin?like cell lesions[J]. Hum Pathol, 2013, 44 (9): 1827?1837.
[ 4 ] D'ELIOS M M, BERGMAN M P, AZZURRI A, et al. H+,K+?atpase (proton pump) is the target autoantigen of Th1?type cytotoxic T cells in autoimmune gastritis[J]. Gastro?enterology, 2001, 120 (2): 377?386.
[ 5 ] BIZZARO N, ANTICO A, VILLALTA D. Autoimmunity and gastric cancer[J]. Int J Mol Sci, 2018, 19 (2): 377.
[ 6 ] TERAO S, SUZUKI S, YAITA H, et al. Multicenter study of autoimmune gastritis in Japan: clinical and endoscopic characteristics[J]. Dig Endosc, 2020, 32 (3): 364?372.
[ 7 ] FURUTA T, BABA S, YAMADE M, et al. High incidence of autoimmune gastritis in patients misdiagnosed with two or more failures of H. pylori eradication[J]. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2018, 48 (3): 370?377.
[ 8 ] AZER S A, AWOSIKA A O, AKHONDI H. Gastritis[M]// StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31334970/.
[ 9 ] KOTERA T, NISHIMI Y, KUSHIMA R, et al. Regression of autoimmune gastritis after eradication of Helicobacter pylori[J]. Case Rep Gastroenterol, 2023, 17 (1): 34?40.
[10] IHARA T, IHARA N, KUSHIMA R. Autoimmune gastritis with a long?term course of type B gastritis: a report of two cases[J]. Intern Med, 2023, 62 (6): 855?863.
[11] IHARA T, IHARA N, KUSHIMA R, et al. Rapid progression of autoimmune gastritis after Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy[J]. Intern Med, 2023, 62 (11): 1603?1609.
[12] DE BLOCK C E, DE LEEUW I H, BOGERS J J, et al. Autoimmune gastropathy in type 1 diabetic patients with parietal cell antibodies: histological and clinical findings[J]. Diabetes Care, 2003, 26 (1): 82?88.
[13] KAMADA T, WATANABE H, FURUTA T, et al. Diag?nostic criteria and endoscopic and histological findings of autoimmune gastritis in Japan[J]. J Gastroenterol, 2023, 58 (3): 185?195.
[14] KISHIKAWA H, NAKAMURA K, OJIRO K, et al. Relevance of pepsinogen, gastrin, and endoscopic atrophy in the diagnosis of autoimmune gastritis[J]. Sci Rep, 2022, 12 (1): 4202.
[15] COATI I, FASSAN M, FARINATI F, et al. Autoimmune gastritis: pathologist's viewpoint[J]. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21 (42): 12179?12189.
[16] KALKAN ?, SOYKAN I. Polyautoimmunity in auto?immune gastritis[J]. Eur J Intern Med, 2016, 31: 79?83.
[17] DASARI A, SHEN C, HALPERIN D, et al. Trends in the incidence, prevalence, and survival outcomes in patients with neuroendocrine tumors in the United States[J]. JAMA Oncol, 2017, 3 (10): 1335?1342.
[18] YANG Z, WANG W, LU J, et al. Gastric neuroendocrine tumors (G?Nets): incidence, prognosis and recent trend toward improved survival[J]. Cell Physiol Biochem, 2018, 45 (1): 389?396.
[19] 中國臨床腫瘤學(xué)會神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤專家委員會. 中國胃腸胰神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤專家共識(2022年版)[J]. 中華腫瘤雜志, 2022, 44 (12): 1305?1329.
[20] 中國抗癌協(xié)會神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤專業(yè)委員會. 中國抗癌協(xié)會神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌腫瘤診治指南(2022年版)[J]. 中國癌癥雜志, 2022, 32 (6): 545?580.
[21] CHEN C, YANG Y, LI P, et al. Incidence of gastric neoplasms arising from autoimmune metaplastic atrophic gastritis: a systematic review and case reports[J]. J Clin Med, 2023, 12 (3): 1062.
[22] 張藝璇, 陳瑩瑩, 祁志榮, 等. 1型胃神經(jīng)內(nèi)分泌瘤134例的臨床特征及相關(guān)背景疾病分析[J]. 中華消化雜志, 2019, 39 (8): 539?544.
[23] FOSSMARK R, JOHANNESSEN R, QVIGSTAD G, et al. Do gastric signet ring cell carcinomas and ECL?cell neuro?endocrine tumours have a common origin? [J]. Medicina (Kaunas), 2022, 58 (4): 470.
[24] VANNELLA L, LAHNER E, OSBORN J, et al. Systematic review: gastric cancer incidence in pernicious anaemia[J]. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2013, 37 (4): 375?382.
[25] KITAMURA S, MUGURUMA N, OKAMOTO K, et al. Clinicopathological characteristics of early gastric cancer associated with autoimmune gastritis[J]. JGH Open, 2021, 5 (10): 1210?1215.
[26] WEISE F, VIETH M, REINHOLD D, et al. Gastric cancer in autoimmune gastritis: a case?control study from the German centers of the staR project on gastric cancer research[J]. United European Gastroenterol J, 2020, 8 (2): 175?184.
[27] SUMIDA C, ICHITA C, NAITO W, et al. Gastric adenocarcinoma of fundic gland type with autoimmune gastritis[J]. Clin J Gastroenterol, 2023, 16 (2): 146?151.
[28] IWATSUBO T, OTA K, TAKEUCHI T. Submucosal tumor?like lesion in autoimmune gastritis: a rare case of fundic gland type of gastric adenocarcinoma[J]. Clin Gastro?enterol Hepatol, 2023, 21 (2): A19.
[29] MORI N, HONGO M, TAKEMURA S, et al. Mixed neuroendocrine?non?neuroendocrine neoplasm associated with autoimmune gastritis[J]. Clin Case Rep, 2022, 10 (3): e05640.
[30] SUN L, ZHANG J, WANG C, et al. Chromosomal and molecular pathway alterations in the neuroendocrine carcinoma and adenocarcinoma components of gastric mixed neuroendocrine?nonneuroendocrine neoplasm[J]. Mod Pathol, 2020, 33 (12): 2602?2613.
[31] MURPHY G, ABNET C C, CHOO?WOSOBA H, et al. Serum gastrin and cholecystokinin are associated with subsequent development of gastric cancer in a prospective cohort of Finnish smokers[J]. Int J Epidemiol, 2017, 46 (3): 914?923.
[32] NESS?JENSEN E, BRINGELAND E A, MATTSSON F, et al. Hypergastrinemia is associated with an increased risk of gastric adenocarcinoma with proximal location: a prospective population?based nested case?control study[J]. Int J Cancer, 2021, 148 (8): 1879?1886.
[33] FOSSMARK R, SAGATUN L, NORDRUM I S, et al. Hypergastrinemia is associated with adenocarcinomas in the gastric corpus and shorter patient survival[J]. APMIS, 2015, 123 (6): 509?514.
[34] BURKITT M D, VARRO A, PRITCHARD D M. Importance of gastrin in the pathogenesis and treatment of gastric tumors[J]. World J Gastroenterol, 2009, 15 (1): 1?16.
[35] LLOYD K A, MOORE A R, PARSONS B N, et al. Gastrin?induced miR?222 promotes gastric tumor development by suppressing p27kip1[J]. Oncotarget, 2016, 7 (29): 45462?45478.
[36] NGUYEN T L, KHURANA S S, BELLONE C J, et al. Autoimmune gastritis mediated by CD4+ T cells promotes the development of gastric cancer[J]. Cancer Res, 2013, 73 (7): 2117?2126.
[37] NOTO C N, HOFT S G, BOCKERSTETT K A, et al. IL13 acts directly on gastric epithelial cells to promote metaplasia development during chronic gastritis[J]. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2022, 13 (2): 623?642.
[38] BOCKERSTETT K A, PETERSEN C P, NOTO C N, et al. Interleukin 27 protects from gastric atrophy and meta?plasia during chronic autoimmune gastritis[J]. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2020, 10 (3): 561?579.
[39] ZHANG Z, ZHU T, ZHANG L, et al. Critical influence of cytokines and immune cells in autoimmune gastritis[J]. Autoimmunity, 2023, 56 (1): 2174531.
[40] ARAI J, NIIKURA R, HAYAKAWA Y, et al. Autoimmune gastritis may be less susceptible to cancer development than Helicobacter pylori?related gastritis based on histol?ogical analysis[J]. Gut, 2023: gutjnl?2023?330052.
[41] RUGGE M, BRICCA L, GUZZINATI S, et al. Autoimmune gastritis: long?term natural history in na?ve Helicobacter pylori?negative patients[J]. Gut, 2023, 72 (1): 30?38.
[42] SEBASTIAN?VALLES F, BERNALDO MADRID B, SAGER C, et al. Chronic treatment with somatostatin analogues in recurrent type 1 gastric neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Biomedicines, 2023, 11 (3): 872.
[43] ROSSI R E, INVERNIZZI P, MAZZAFERRO V, et al. Response and relapse rates after treatment with long?acting somatostatin analogs in multifocal or recurrent type?1 gastric carcinoids: a systematic review and meta?analysis[J]. United European Gastroenterol J, 2020, 8 (2): 140?147.
[44] LENTI M V, MICELI E, COCOCCIA S, et al. Determinants of diagnostic delay in autoimmune atrophic gastritis[J]. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2019, 50 (2): 167?175.
[45] PIMENTEL?NUNES P, LIB?NIO D, MARCOS?PINTO R, et al. Management of epithelial precancerous conditions and lesions in the stomach (MAPS II): European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE), European Helicobacter and Microbiota Study Group (EHMSG), European Society of Pathology (ESP), and Sociedade Portuguesa de Endo?scopia Digestiva (SPED) guideline update 2019[J]. Endo?scopy, 2019, 51 (4): 365?388.
[46] 中華醫(yī)學(xué)會消化病學(xué)分會, 中華醫(yī)學(xué)會消化病學(xué)分會消化系統(tǒng)腫瘤協(xié)作組. 中國慢性胃炎診治指南(2022年, 上海)[J]. 中華消化雜志, 2023, 43 (3): 145?175.
[47] SHAH S C, PIAZUELO M B, KUIPERS E J, et al. AGA clinical practice update on the diagnosis and management of atrophic gastritis: expert review[J]. Gastroenterology, 2021, 161 (4): 1325?1332. e7.
(本文編輯:袁春英)